The theme echoed here is that of the creation of the golem by Rabbi Judah Loew, and like that tale, this one derives from Prague. But although the golem was created out of necessity, in order to protect the Jews of the ghetto from the dangers of the blood libel, the homunculus of Maimonides is created purely in order to discover the secrets of creation.
It has been suggested on several occasions that the golem cycle of legends may have inspired Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, since both concern the creation of a man, the golem by kabbalistic magic and Frankenstein’s monster by science. If there was indeed a folk source that served to inspire Mary Shelley, it may have been the present tale about Maimonides, which was first published at the same time as the earliest golem legends, and which has a theme and mood far closer to that of Frankenstein than do the tales of the golem. It would be difficult to demonstrate this conclusively, since Frankenstein was published in 1818 and Sippurim, the volume in which the present tale and earliest golem legend appear, was not published until 1847. However, since all indications are that the stories in Sippurim are based on authentic folk sources, there is every reason to assume that an oral version of this tale about Maimonides was current at the time Mary Shelley wrote her famous novel and probably a century or two before that.
The theme that such daring leads to disaster is common in tales with kabbalistic themes such as this. This theme goes all the way back to the famous talmudic story about the four sages who entered Paradise (B. Hag. 14b): Ben Azzai looked and died; Ben Zoma looked and lost his mind; Elisha ben Abuyah cut the shoots, that is, became an apostate; and only Rabbi Akiba “ascended and descended in peace.” This tale has always been understood to refer to mystical contemplation and the dangers attending it. The moral is clear: if three of four of the greatest sages could not withstand the dangers of the mystical ascent, how could the average person? Therefore restrictions were made that no more than two at a time could discuss the chariot vision of Ezekiel (Ma’aseh Merkavah), and no more than one could study the Mysteries of Creation (Ma’aseh Bereshit). In addition, kabbalistic study was forbidden until a man was married and at least 40 (or, some sources say, 30) years old.
This tale indicates that one of the dangers associated with this kind of mystical indulgence was the creation of a false Messiah, as expressed by the fear of Maimonides in this story that once the gestation of the homunculus is complete, he will be immortal. This suggests the theme of the hastening of the Messiah by various kabbalistic means, including the use of holy names and other methods. Such attempts have always been portrayed as forbidden and doomed to failure. The present folktale is of particular interest because of its apparent antagonism toward Maimonides, one of the most revered figures in Judaism. As such, it must be considered to be a folk expression of the controversy that raged at several periods, including that from which this tale emerged, over the writings and teachings of Maimonides. For the background of this dispute, see Maimonidean Criticism and the Maimonidean Controversy, 1180-1240, by Daniel J. Silver.
Folktales are not the usual mode of expression for such religious conflict. Tracts, books, and fiery speeches are more commonly used. But long before the eighteenth century, Maimonides had become a figure of folk proportions not unlike the greatest sages, such as Rabbi Akiba or the Ari, and was the hero of many folktales. (For an example of a more typical tale about Maimonides, see “The Healing Waters” in Miriam’s Tambourine, pp. 209-216.) Therefore it was not enough to resist his teachings in the usual ways, but it was necessary to undermine his folk image as well. That seems to be the intention of this tale, which also fits into the pattern of many other cautionary anti-Kabbalistic warning tales.
The lack of knowledge of the true teachings of both Maimonides and the kabbalah is evident in the choice of the secret texts from which Maimonides is said to have learned his secrets. One of these, The Book of Creation, is the name of an actual kabbalistic text, Sefer Yetzirah (in Hebrew literally, “The Book of Formation”), which is one of the earliest and most enigmatic kabbalistic works. It does not attempt to impart, however, secrets of the kind required to bring the slain assistant to life. Instead it concentrates on the mysteries of letters and numbers and is far more abstract and oblique. Nor does the quotation from The Book of Creation in the story appear in the actual text of Sefer Yetzirah. The combination of anti-Maimonidean and anti-Kabbalistic elements suggests that this tale emerged from the Jewish centers of Poland and Lithuania, where the old quarrel broke out again in the late Middle Ages. At the same time, the present tale is itself a variant of other, positive folktales about the great medical skill and supernatural powers of Maimonides. In one of these tales, found in Shalshelet ha-Kabbalah, compiled by Gedaliah ibn Yachya (Zolkiew, Russia: 1801), Maimonides is forced to swallow poison in a confrontation with the king’s physicians, but provides the antidote to save himself, while the king’s physicians all die from the poison provided by Maimonides. In another such tale, an even closer variant to the one at hand, the Caliph has Maimonides beheaded, but before his execution, Maimonides instructs his students in how to reattach his head, and he fully recovers, much to the consternation of the Caliph. It is not a giant step from the powers demonstrated in these tales to the creation of the immortal man in “The Homunculus of Maimonides.” Note that the parallel theme to the creation of the golem by the Maharal differs in the essential issue of the success or failure of the creation. While the golem does fulfill its purpose, the creation of Maimonides does not. As such, this tale of Maimonides also adds a note of caution to those who found the mystical approach of the Maharal appealing as a way to resolve the problems of their time. Clearly, this tale has no historical kernel, nor is it characteristic of Maimonides in any way.
Sources:
Sippurim: eine Sammlung jüdischer Sagen, Märchen und Geschichten für Völkerkunde; Ha-Rambam be-Fi ha-Am be-Maroko by Ya’akov Itiel in Yeda Am Vol. 2, pp. 198-199, 1954; Edot Mesaprot, pp. 146-147.
Studies:
Maimonidean Criticism and the Maimonidean Controversy, 1180-1240 by Daniel J. Silver.
BOOK SIX
MYTHS OF THE HOLY TIME
All the students watched spellbound as the Ari and the old man danced.
IFA 13043
363. GOD PASSES JUDGMENT
God said to Israel: “My children, know that I pass judgment four times a year: At the time of Passover, I adjudicate cases concerning the produce of the field. At the time of Shavuot, cases concerning the fruit of the trees. At the time of Rosh ha-Shanah, cases concerning all the inhabitants of the world, who pass before Me in single file. At the time of Sukkot, cases concerning the supply of water.
“During three of these times I judge civil matters, and I make some people rich and some people poor, give more to some and less to others. But Rosh ha-Shanah is the time for judging capital cases—for deciding life or death.”
Here God establishes four times of the year that He passes judgment. Whereas Rosh ha-Shanah is known as the Day of Judgment, this myth expands the time of judgment to the three pilgrimage festivals of Passover, Shavuot, and Sukkot. But a clear distinction is made between civil cases—here linked to the festivals—and capital cases—linked only to Rosh ha-Shanah, when God decides who will live and who will die. The effect is to have God’s judgment present throughout more of the year, as an ongoing constant reminder of God’s involvement in this world.
Sources:
Pesikta de-Rav Kahana 7:2.
364. THE BOOK OF LIFE AND THE BOOK OF DEATH
All things are judged on Rosh ha-Shanah, and their fate is sealed on Yom Kippur. Some say there is a ledger in heaven that records all that has taken place from the time of Adam throughout the generations. The ledger is open, and the hand is writing every single thing that a person does below. Whose hand is this? Some say it is that of an angel. Others say that the hand belongs to God Himself, and that the book is the book that God is writing. That is the meaning of the verse And a scroll of remembrance has been written at His
behest (Mal. 3:16). This is the Book of Life.
In addition to the Book of Life, there is a second book, the Book of Death. During the Days of Awe God’s scrutiny of our lives is intense, and it is to be hoped that if our name has strayed to the wrong ledger, God will say, “I have removed your name from the Book of Death and put it in the Book of Life, as it is said, For Yahweh has redeemed Jacob” (Isa. 44:23).
Others say that there are three books opened in heaven on Rosh ha-Shanah, the New Year: one for the wholly righteous, one for the wholly wicked, and one for those who are neither completely righteous nor completely wicked. The wholly righteous are inscribed at once and sealed in the Book of Life; the wholly wicked are inscribed at once and sealed in the Book of Death; and the fate of the intermediate is suspended from Rosh ha-Shanah until Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement. If they repent and are found worthy, they are inscribed for life; if they fail to repent, they are inscribed for death. Yet so great is the power of atonement on Yom Kippur, that it is said to bring about atonement even for those who have not repented.
When God sits on the Throne of Judgment, the Books of Life and Death are open before Him, as it is said, The court sat and the books were opened (Dan. 7:10). His garment is as white as snow, the hair on His head pure wool, and His cloak seventy times brighter than the sun. A pair of angels, both named Shofariel, are the keepers of the Books, which are closed to everyone else. No other angels have access to the secrets inscribed there. Not even Metatron, the Prince of the Presence, is permitted to peer at that divine list. Among the sages, only the Ari knew how to peer into those secret books. In this way he learned the fate of his followers from the first of Rosh ha-Shanah.
Some say that the world is not only judged on those holy days, but that God sits upon the Throne of Judgment and judges the world every day. The Books of the Living and the Books of the Dead are opened before him, and all the children of heaven stand before him in fear, dread, awe, and trembling. And in this world as well every being trembles before the eyes of God.
Others say that God is a merciful God. Even as clouds are swept away by wind, so the iniquities of Israel are swept away in this world, as it is said, I wipe away your sins like a cloud (Isa. 44:22). For from the time He created Adam, God has known that if He held mankind to account for its successive misdeeds, the world would not endure. Therefore God remembers those who observe the Torah, but puts those who commit misdeeds out of mind. This means that God removes their names from the Book of Death and puts them in the Book of Life.
There is a series of myths about heavenly books. Some of these are described as ledgers in which God keeps track of good and bad behavior. The best known of these myths concern the Books of Life and Death. The talmudic version lists three books all linked to Rosh ha-Shanah: the Book of Life, the Book of Death, and a book concerning the fate of the intermediate. However, for most Jews there is a conscious focusing on the Book of Life, while the Book of Death remains for the most part unnamed and largely unmentioned, and the notion of a third book has essentially vanished from the tradition. The current understanding is that a person’s name is inscribed on Rosh ha-Shanah either in the Book of Life or the “Other Book,” (i.e., The Book of Death), but the name is not sealed until Yom Kippur. This is stated succinctly in the Talmud: “Man is judged on Rosh ha-Shanah and his fate is sealed on Yom Kippur” (B. RH 16a). Altogether, these ten days are known as the ten Days of Awe, and they serve as an intensive period of self-examination and repentance, climaxing on the day of Yom Kippur. There is also an element of negotiating with God, as Abraham did concerning the fate of Sodom. The hope, of course, is to obtain God’s forgiveness in order to change a negative fate. According to the Talmud (B. RH 17b), “Great is the power of repentance; it can rescind a person’s final sentence.”
There is a biblical precedent for these heavenly books, found in Jeremiah 17:1: The guilt of Judah is inscribed with a stylus of iron, engraved with an adamant point. Another reference is found in Malachi 3:16, And a scroll of remembrance has been written at His behest. In Esther Rabbah 2:23, this is referred to as the Book of God.
It is important to note that these heavenly books are not to be confused with the Torah. The general view is that they are for God’s eyes alone. These other books were never handed down from heaven, as was the Torah. The one possible exception is The Book of Raziel, said to have been given to Adam by the angel Raziel. However, The Book of Raziel can be seen as a substitute for the Torah, until it was given at Mount Sinai. See “The Book of Raziel,” p. 253.
Another heavenly book is described by Ezekiel, who has a vision of the semblance of the Presence of the Lord (Ezek. 1:28), and hears a mysterious figure speaking, who tells him to “open your mouth and eat what I am giving you” (Ezek. 2:8): As I looked, there was a hand stretched out to me, holding a written scroll. He unrolled it before me, and it was inscribed on both the front and the back (Ezek. 2:9-10). Since scrolls are traditionally written on only one side, Ezekiel seems to be describing a new kind of book, one relevant to the inner, spiritual life, as well as to day to day existence in the world.
Zechariah has a vision of a flying scroll, presumably of heavenly origin: “What do you see?” he asked. And I replied, “A flying scroll, twenty cubits long and ten cubits wide” (Zech. 5:1).
The description of God seated on His Throne of Judgment derives from Daniel 7:9. 1 Enoch 47:3 has a vivid description of God seated on the Throne of Glory, with the Books of Life and Death open before him, and all of God’s counselors standing there.
3 Enoch describes a pair of angels, whose full names are Shofariel YHVH Memit and Shofariel YHVH Mehayeh. They are the keepers of the Books, which are closed to everyone else, even Metatron, who has access to virtually everything else in heaven. (Note how the names of these angels contain the Name of God, hinting that they are an extension of God.) More common, however, is the tradition that Metatron is the heavenly scribe, and he sits on a throne in heaven and writes down the deeds of Israel. Elisha ben Abuyah (Aher) is said to have experienced great shock when he saw Metatron thus seated, which led to his exclamation, “There are—God forbid—two powers in heaven!” (B. Hag. 15a).
In Babylonian literature, the gods were said to possess “tablets of destiny” containing the fate of all mortals. These tablets were adjusted on the New Year, when Marduk, the chief among the Babylonian gods, was said to cast lots in heaven to determine the fate of humans. Thus it would appear that the Jewish myth of the Books of Life and Death finds its source in this Babylonian tradition. See G. Widengren, The Ascension of the Apostle and the Heavenly Book, p. 7ff.
All in all, the portrait of God found in 3 Enoch is very anthropomorphic, on one hand that of an old man, with white hair, described as wool, and at the same time the hint of a ruler dressed in armor, prepared to do battle. 3 Enoch 3:1-10 also describes four angelic princes known as ‘Irin and Kaddishin who stand around God like court officers. These angels argue every case that comes before God.
While sitting on His Throne of Judgment, God tends to deliver harsh judgments, as at the time of the Flood or with Sodom and Gomorrah. That is why everyone in heaven is trembling as well. God’s judgments of angels who show the slightest hesitation to obey his command is swift—they are cast into a flaming river and cease to exist. Likewise, seven planets that did not manifest themselves when commanded to do so are punished in the fires of Gehenna.
From the first of Rosh ha-Shanah the Ari is said to have known the destiny of his followers, though he usually kept it secret. See “A Vision at the Wailing Wall,” p. 63.
Rabbi Shimon ben Lakish raises the question of whether there is actually such a heavenly book, saying, “Does God really have a book, and in the book he writes? That is to say that everything is known and revealed to Him, as it is said, For His eyes are upon a man’s way; He observes his every step (Job 34:21).”
This image of a time of judgment has proved to be haunting for all Jewish generations. Even secular Jews find their way into
the synagogue on Rosh ha-Shanah and Yom Kippur, when God’s intense scrutiny can be felt by all.
Sources:
B. Rosh ha-Shanah 16a-b, 32b; Tosefta Rosh ha-Shanah 1:13;B. Avot 3:3, 3:20; 1 Enoch 47:3; 3 Enoch 28:1-10; Pesikta Rabbati 8; Eliyahu Rabbah 1:5; Avodat Yisrael, Nitzavim 82a.
365. THE ORIGIN OF ROSH HA-SHANAH
Adam repented of his sin by standing in the River Gihon for one hundred and thirty years, until his skin began to shrivel. When God saw that Adam had truly repented, He absolved him, giving him the Torah as a substitute for the Garden of Eden that he had lost.
That eventful day was in the first month of Tishrei. Therefore God spoke to Adam: “You shall be the prototype of my children. As you have been judged by Me on this day and absolved, so your children, Israel, shall be judged by me on this New Year’s day, and they shall be absolved.”
The usual explanation is that Rosh ha-Shanah is the birthday of the world. Here God’s absolution of Adam is linked to the origin of Rosh ha-Shanah. Not only does this myth provide such an origin, making Rosh ha-Shanah commemorate the day that God forgave Adam for the sin of eating the forbidden fruit, but it also states that God gave the Torah to Adam as a replacement for having lost the Garden of Eden.
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