by Gil Marks
A clue to the tapuach's identity may come from a biblical mention in Proverbs of "golden tapuchim," indicating a yellowish tint. One candidate that meets all the qualifications for the tapuach is the quince, a relative of apples and pears that was already cultivated in biblical times and called chavushim in the Talmud. As it matures, the quince's greenish skin turns a dark yellow color and the fruit, shaped like an elongated apple, develops an intense musky aroma. The quince's fragrance is highly regarded and the quince and the etrog (citron) are the only fruits that require a special blessing to be recited over their aroma. Thus some Mizrachim, especially Kurds, and Sephardim incorporate raw quince (peeled, cored, and grated) into their charoset.
Other authorities consider the biblical tapuach to be a citrus fruit, which is certainly acidic. The orange has been proposed for this role. Indeed, some Sephardic versions of charoset contain a chopped raw orange (including the peel). However, although the original orange, a native of India, was exceedingly acidic like the contemporary bitter orange, this plant probably only first reached the land of Israel during medieval times.
The Targum (Aramaic translation) of Song of Songs renders tapuach as the other notably fragrant fruit— the etrog. Similarly, the Talmud, in its exposition of the biblical passage "like the smell of the field which the Lord has blessed," notes that the reference is to a field of "tapuchim"; Tosafot, in its commentary on the Talmud, contends that the smell was that of the etrog. Consequently, some Sephardim use an etrog (or the grated rind of an etrog soaked overnight) in their charoset.
The Sages did not direct that charoset actually contain any tapuach, just as there is no instruction to include actual mud, only that it have an acidic component in memory of the tapuach, which in many communities was fulfilled by adding a little wine vinegar or pomegranate juice. In this vein, the Jerusalem Talmud notes "charoset [with the addition of a red liquid] also serves as a reminder of the blood in Egypt." This does not mean that charoset should be pungent. As the Talmud notes, "A person must not keep the bitter herbs [an extended time] in the charoset lest the sweetness of its ingredients neutralize the bitterness [of the maror]." The tart ingredient is intended to be only a minor component of the charoset, with sweet fruit constituting the bulk of the relish.
In addition, the custom arose of incorporating various produce besides the tapuach mentioned in Song of Songs—dates, figs, pomegranates, and nuts. The most common nuts are among the few mentioned in the Bible, almonds and walnuts. Most Italians and some Sephardim and Mizrachim apply both verses from the Song of Songs and use both dried biblical fruits, such as dates, figs, and raisins, and fresh fruits, particularly apples and quinces.
The Talmud's final touch to charoset is the addition of long-shaped spices "as a remembrance of the straw" with which the Israelites made mud bricks in Egypt. In Temple times, in the days preceding Passover, street peddlers could be heard throughout Jerusalem calling out, "Come and get your spices for the commandment" (of charoset). In the Roman period, these spices, primarily ginger brought by traders from the Orient and Kinamon (see Cinnamon/Cassia) from Israel, were often freshly chopped. Many Yemenites uniquely call charoset by the name doukeh or dukah, from the instructions in the Jerusalem Talmud: "Why is it called doukeh, because docheh iman ["grinds with them" spices]."
The basis for the charoset of Mizrachim and Se- phardim, and most certainly for the earliest versions from Talmudic times, was dates, either boiled into a honey (devash) or crushed. On a symbolic level, the palm is a metaphor for a lofty stature and the righteous. The reddish brown color of the date honey serves to emphasize its connection to mud. In those areas not conducive to date production, dried figs and raisins provided an acceptable alternative or addition.
The first known charoset recipe, which was included in the siddur (prayer book) of Saadia Gaon (882—942 CE), head of the academy of Sura in Babylonia, instructs, "Make a moist sauce from dates, walnuts, and sesame [the spice] and knead it in red wine vinegar [the acidic element], and that is called halek." Note the absence of apples or any fresh fruit. Saadia also used the term halek/haleq, a still common central Asian synonym for charoset, which is purportedly the name of a type of walnut added to the date honey to transform it into charoset. Iraqis, many Syrians, and Baghdadis of India still refer to charoset as halek.
Charoset from Crete by at least the eighteenth century, was zesty, consisting of mashed raisins, ground almonds, wine vinegar, black pepper, and sometimes a little ground brick, the latter based on a misreading of Rabbi Samuel ben Meir (Rashbam); the use of actual brick was greatly disapproved of by rabbinic authorities.
Rabbi Eleazar ben Judah (c. 1165—1230) of Worms, France, in Sefer ha-Rokeach, reflecting an Ashkenazic position shortly after the disasters of the First Crusade, instructed, "Charoset is made from tapuchim, into which is added a little of the fruits from Song of Songs—walnuts, figs, and pomegranates—and pepper, ginger, cumin, horseradish [yes, in charoset for pungency and as a spice; it was not yet used as maror], and black radish." Today, the basic Ashkenazic charoset recipe, consisting of apples, honey, wine, cinnamon, and walnuts or almonds, is virtually identical in communities from Alsace to the Ukraine. For many generations, charoset was traditionally made in a wooden bowl using a hackmesser/mezzaluna (half-moon chopper).
Until relatively recently, in much of northern Europe, even apples could be sparse, especially in the springtime, not to mention grape wine and imported spices. Thus in numerous eastern European communities, many individuals could not make their own charoset. Rather, the local wine merchant, vintner, distiller, or one of the wealthiest members of the community made a large batch of charoset with whatever apples and other ingredients could be obtained and doled out small portions to the townsfolk.
(See also Date and Honey)
Afghan Charoset
about 6 cups
[PAREVE]
½ cup almonds
½ cup walnuts
½ cup dried apricots
½ cup dried figs
½ cup raisins
1 pomegranate, peeled and seeded
1 medium apple, peeled, cored, and chopped
1 medium ripe banana, peeled
1 medium pear, peeled, cored, and chopped
1 cup strawberries, hulled
1 cup fruity dry red wine
2 tablespoons fresh lemon juice
About 1 tablespoon red wine vinegar
About 1½ teaspoons ground cinnamon
About ½ teaspoon ground ginger
About ½ teaspoon ground black pepper
1. Place the almonds, walnuts, apricots, figs, and raisins in a large bowl. Cover with cold water, and let soak for at least 2 hours. Drain.
2. Place the pomegranate seeds in a food processor fitted with a metal blade and pulse several times. Add the soaked ingredients, apple, banana, pear, and strawberries and process into a paste. Blend in the wine. Add the lemon juice, vinegar, cinnamon, ginger, and pepper, adjusting the seasoning to taste.
Ashkenazic Charoset
about 4 cups
[PAREVE]
3 medium apples, cored and chopped
½ to 1 cup chopped almonds or walnuts
About 2 tablespoons honey
About 1 teaspoon ground cinnamon, or 1 (3-inch) cinnamon stick, shaved or slivered
¼ teaspoon ground ginger (optional)
About ¼ cup sweet red wine or grape juice
In a medium bowl, combine the apples, nuts, honey, cinnamon, and, if using, ginger. Stir in enough wine to make a paste that holds together.
Curaçao Charoset (Garoza)
about 6 cups/36 balls
[PAREVE]
3¼ cups (1 pound) unsalted peanuts
1 cup unsalted cashews
¾ cup dried figs, stems removed
¾ cup pitted dried plums
¾ cup dark raisins
2/3 cup pitted dates or candied fruit
1 cup dark brown sugar
¼ cup honey
A
bout 3 tablespoons sweet red wine
2 tablespoons orange juice
1 tablespoon fresh lime or lemon juice
About 2 tablespoons ground cinnamon
In a food processor or meat grinder, grind the peanuts, cashews, figs, plums, raisins, and dates. Mix in the sugar, honey, wine, and juices. Using wet hands, shape into 1-inch balls. Roll in the cinnamon to coat. Arrange in a single layer and cover with plastic wrap.
Georgian Halek
about 8 cups
[PAREVE]
¼ cup whole cloves
¼ cup boiling water
¼ cup almonds
¼ cup hazelnuts
¼ cup walnuts
4 medium apples, cored and finely chopped
4 medium pears, cored and finely chopped
About 1/3 cup honey
1. Place the cloves in a small bowl, pour in the boiling water, and let stand for 15 minutes. Strain, reserving the liquid.
2. In a food processor, nut grinder, or meat grinder, grind the almonds, hazelnuts, and walnuts until smooth.
3. In a medium bowl, combine the nuts, clove water, apples, pears, and honey.
Israeli Charoset
about 5 cups
[PAREVE]
2 medium apples, peeled, cored, and grated
2 medium bananas, mashed
14 pitted dates, chopped
1/3 cup blanched almonds, ground
¼ cup matza meal
Juice and zest of ½ lemon
Juice and zest of ½ orange
1 teaspoon ground cinnamon
Sugar or honey to taste
¼ cup sweet red wine
In a medium bowl, combine all the ingredients, adding enough wine to make a paste.
Italian Chestnut Charoset
about 7 cups
[PAREVE]
Only the chestnuts are cooked in this version, but there are other versions from Padua in which all the ingredients are cooked, and still others from Veneto in which chestnut puree is substituted for the whole chestnuts.
1¼ cups (6 ounces) dried chestnuts
2 medium apples, or 1 apple and 1 pear, cored and peeled
1¼ cups pitted dates
1¼ cups dried figs or pitted dried plums
1 cup raisins
1 cup blanched almonds, finely chopped
About 1 teaspoon ground cinnamon
About 3 tablespoons orange juice
About 3 tablespoons fruity dry red wine
1. Place the chestnuts in a medium saucepan and add water to cover. Bring to a boil, reduce the heat to low, and simmer until tender, about 1½ hours. Drain and pat dry.
2. In a food processor or meat grinder, chop the chestnuts, apples, dates, figs, and raisins. Mix in the almonds, cinnamon, orange juice, and wine.
Persian Charoset
about 5 cups
[PAREVE]
½ to 1 teaspoon ground cinnamon
¼ to ½ teaspoon ground ginger or 1 to 2 teaspoons grated fresh ginger
¼ teaspoon ground cardamom or to taste
¼ teaspoon ground coriander or to taste
1/8 teaspoon ground cloves or to taste
2/3 cup pomegranate juice
2 medium apples, or 1 medium apple and 1 medium pear, cored and grated
1 cup pitted dates, ground
½ to 1 cup raisins
½ cup ground almonds
½ cup ground pistachios
½ cup ground walnuts
Juice and zest of ½ lemon, or 2 tablespoons red wine or cider vinegar
About 2/3 cup sweet red wine
In a medium bowl, combine the cinnamon, ginger, cardamom, coriander, and cloves, then stir in the pomegranate juice to dissolve the spices. Mix in the remaining ingredients.
Sephardic Charoset
about 4 cups
[PAREVE]
1 pound (22/3 cups) pitted dates
About 1¼ cups water
½ to 1 cup chopped almonds or walnuts, or ½ cup each
½ to 1 teaspoon ground cinnamon
About 3 tablespoons fruity dry red wine
1. Place the dates in a medium saucepan and add water to cover. Let soak for at least 2 hours.
2. Bring to a boil, reduce the heat to low, and simmer, stirring frequently with a wooden spoon, until soft and thick, about 40 minutes. Let cool. The date syrup can be prepared ahead and stored in the refrigerator for up to 1 month.
3. Stir in the nuts, cinnamon, and enough wine to make a paste.
Surinam Charoset
about 10 cups
[PAREVE]
3¼ cups (8 ounces) unsweetened grated coconut
2 cups ground almonds or walnuts
22/3 cups dried apples, coarsely chopped
11/3 cups dried apricots, coarsely chopped
2 cups dried pears, coarsely chopped
11/3 cups dried plums, coarsely chopped
1½ cups raisins
¼ cup sugar
2 to 3 teaspoons ground cinnamon
1 to 2 teaspoons grated fresh ginger (optional)
About 3 cups water
½ cup cherry preserves
About 2/3 cup sweet red wine
In a large, heavy pot, combine the coconut, nuts, apples, apricots, pears, plums, raisins, sugar, cinnamon, and, if using, ginger. Add the water to cover. Bring to a boil, reduce the heat to medium-low, and simmer, stirring frequently and adding more water if necessary, until the coconut and fruits soften and the mixture thickens, about 1½ hours. Stir in the preserves. Let cool for about 15 minutes, then stir in the wine to moisten. Let cool completely. The mixture should be moist, so if it looks dry, stir in a little additional wine.
Yemenite Charoset (Doukeh)
about 10 cups
[PAREVE]
1¾ cups sesame seeds
3 cups pitted dates, chopped
3 cups raisins, chopped
1 cup almonds, chopped
1 cup walnuts, chopped
4 teaspoons ground cinnamon
½ teaspoon ground cardamom
½ teaspoon ground cloves
½ teaspoon ground ginger
½ teaspoon salt
Water
1. In a dry, large, heavy skillet, stir the sesame seeds over medium heat until lightly browned. Remove from the skillet and let cool.
2. In a large saucepan, combine all the ingredients and enough water to make a mixture that resembles preserves. Simmer over medium-low heat, stirring frequently, until the mixture thickens, about 15 minutes. Let cool.
Cheese
According to legend, a Middle Eastern herdsman nearly six thousand years ago stored some milk in a sack made from a calf's or lamb's stomach, waterproof animal organs then providing the best portable containers for liquid, only to discover later that the milk had separated. Sampling the coagulated curds, which we now call cheese, he realized that it was not only tasty but longer lasting than the very perishable milk from which it was made. By 2000 BCE, fresh cheese was a common food throughout the area as demonstrated by the discovery in Middle Eastern digs of numerous small cheese molds replete with holes for draining the whey. In the Bible, as soon as David is crowned king of Israel, his father, Jesse, sends him to bring food to his brothers fighting in the army against the Philistines, and also directs him to give their commander a gift of ten cheeses (called charitzei ha'chalav, "cuttings of the milk"). Later the Romans discovered that cooking the milk to produce curds, pressing the curds, soaking the cheese in salt, and aging it for several months produced hard cheeses with a much longer shelf life and much more diversity. Pliny the Elder (c. 77 CE) described many of the cheeses favored by Roman gourmands, including ones similar to Swiss and blue. While the basics of cheese making remain relatively unchanged from Roman times, there are now more than two thousand basic varieties around the globe.
Cheese is the solid portion of the milk of a few cloven-hoofed, cud-chewing animals separated from a liquid called whey. Goat and sheep cheeses are most prevalent in the M
iddle East and Mediterranean. When the Bible spoke of "a land flowing with milk and honey," it was referring to goat's milk. The amazing aspect of cheese making is how small differences—including variations in milk, amount of salt and other flavorings, temperature, pressing, and length of aging—result in major changes in flavor, color, texture, and aroma. Raw milk from the cheese-producing animals differs little in taste and color, yet the cheeses made from their milk come in a wide range of flavors, colors, and aromas. Goat's milk cheese has a more piquant flavor and a whiter color than cow's milk cheese. Sheep's milk cheese is also white but carries a distinctly sharp flavor.
Curd cheeses (fresh cheeses)—including cottage, ricotta, and chèvre—have a high moisture content and are unripened or only slightly ripened, resulting in a soft texture and a mild, sometimes slightly acidic flavor. The younger the cheese, the less flavor it has. An array of fresh cheeses were originally made from sour milk or buttermilk, which contained sufficient lactic acid bacteria to coagulate the curds, in a process that remains widespread in Europe. The curds are then heated, drained, and salted. Middle Easterners eventually learned how to acidify fresh milk by adding a little lemon juice, vinegar, or rennet; the acid in the lemon juice or vinegar yielded a softer, more fragile texture than rennet. Today, a bacterial culture is usually added to fresh milk to convert the lactose into lactic acid, equalizing the pH level, and then either a rennet or an acid is added to coagulate the milk, separating the curds from the whey. Kosher cooks could not use animal-based rennet from nonkosher sources and, therefore, historically relied on acid until a practical vegetable-based rennet was developed.
Fresh cheese can be eaten immediately and only lasts for a rather short time. Salt is usually added, not only for flavor but also as a preservative. Soaking or boiling a drained soft cheese, such as feta, in salt brine, stops the ripening process, which allows for longer storage as well as a saltier flavor. Hard cheeses are pressed into molds and left to ripen by microorganisms; the range of possibilities is much greater for these than for fresh cheeses.
Around the time of the destruction of the Second Temple, due to the expansion of the types of cheeses available and their role, the Sanhedrin enacted a law against eating non-Jewish cheese (gevinat akum) to prevent people from eating various unkosher ingredients (i.e., animal-based rennet, enzymes, and milk) and perhaps also to create a social barrier. A disagreement exists as to whether supervision (occasional visits) or constant participation of a mashgiach is necessary to permit gevinat akum to be considered kosher. Most kosher supervising agencies are strict in regard to hard cheeses, but lenient with soft cheeses. Consequently, most kosher hard cheeses today are made by small Jewish companies (typically renting the facilities of a large producer), while soft cheeses, such as cottage cheese and cream cheese, are widely available from large manufacturers with kosher certification. It is also the reason why today Israelis can enjoy a wide range of kosher native hard cheeses, while the selection in America is generally quite limited.