by Gil Marks
The Talmud also explained how to differentiate shuman from cheilev. Cheilev are fats that are not intertwined with the meat of the animal but peel away as a solid layer. Nachmanides expanded on the differences: "The nature of shuman found in the ribs, sides, and tail, which is not separate from the meat, is warm and moist, while the fat which can be separated from the meat, such as that which is on the kidneys, is cold and moist, thick and coarse."
The prohibition against consuming cheilev applies only to a trio of domesticated ruminants which could be an offering in the Temple—cows, sheep, and goats. All other kosher animals, including deer and birds, are not subject to this taboo. The status of buffalo and bison is uncertain, and, therefore, requires the removal of cheilev.
Only the ingestion of cheilev is forbidden. It can be used for other purposes. In many cultures, suet, which is not the same as lard (rendered pork fat), was a prized resource. Suet is solid at room temperature and below seventy degrees. The fat is usually rendered by melting, then it is strained, which removes impurities and allows it to be stored without refrigeration for an extended period. Suet is used for frying various foods and incorporated into many dishes, imparting a richness unobtainable from other sources. It is also used to make tallow for candles, soap, and lubricants. The first product to receive rabbinical supervision was a precedent-setting pareve soap without suet created by Israel Rokeach in Kovno, Lithuania, in 1870.
Suet was especially important in English cookery, where it was integral to many traditional recipes, including steamed pudding, stuffing, mincemeat, and various pastries. In baked goods, the tiny pockets of suet melt and steam, providing a flaky or fluffy texture, depending on the type of dough, and a resonant taste. In the modern fast-food industry, suet was commonly used for deep-frying, especially for potatoes and doughnuts. Thus of all the fat of a cow, suet was the most flavorful and useful and, therefore, the most valuable.
For traditional Jews, however, even a trace of cheilev in food was unacceptable and all of it had to be carefully removed from the meat and organs. The process of extricating the forbidden fats, as well as the large arteries and veins, where blood coagulates after slaughter, and the forbidden sciatic nerve (a process called nikkur in Hebrew and treibor in Yiddish), which is primarily located in the hindquarter of an animal, is extremely complicated and time-consuming. There is a little cheilev in the front section, located on the diaphragm, liver, and the ribs closest to the hindquarter, which must also be removed. Following the Black Death (about 1350 to 1550), a decline in farming and increase in cattle raising in western and central Europe led to an unprecedented meat surplus. As a result, Ashkenazim stopped consuming the rear portion of these animals. However, Sephardim and Mizarchim had less access to meat and thought the efforts were worthwhile and continued to permit the rear cuts.
Chelow/Polow
Chelow is rice cooked by a special two-part method. First it is parboiled and then steamed for an extended period.
Origin: Persia
Other names: chelou.
Rice probably first reached Persia and was cultivated in the plains of the Caspian area in the fourth century BCE; the highest-quality rice in the country still comes from that region in what is now Iran. Rice, called berenj in Farsi from the Sanskrit vrjana (enclosed settlement/community), did not make an immediate impact on the Persians. Eventually, however, it became the country's favorite grain. Persians created special cooking methods for rice and numerous rice dishes. They incorporated it into stews, soups, casseroles, stuffed vegetables, and puddings. Rice was ground into a flour used to make various cookies and confections. Simple cooked rice is called kateh and this dish was most prominent in northern Iran. Much more important and intricate is chelow, a dish served at all important occasions.
Chelow, which might be a word of Indian origin, was first mentioned in the fourteenth century, and the dish was subsequently refined and expanded over the centuries. Before cooking, the rice is carefully inspected to remove any grit and small particles. It is washed in lukewarm water in a large bowl or pot, stirred gently with the hand, then drained. The washing is repeated about five more times, until the water remains clear. The rice is then soaked in cold water to cover for at least two hours or overnight. After draining, the kernels are parboiled in plenty of water over medium heat for about ten minutes, then drained and rinsed again. Saffron or turmeric is sometimes used to tint the rice a bright yellow, the color of good fortune. Finally, the partially cooked rice is steamed in a covered pot until it is tender and the bottom forms a golden and crisp crust known as a tahdiq/tah-dig (literally "bottom of the pan"), the favorite part of the dish for many Persians. When the rice is ready, a cloud of steam emerges when the lid is lifted.
Rinsing the rice before and after parboiling re- moves any surface starch, which means that each grain remains whole and separate after cooking. In addition, well-washed rice emits a pronounced fragrance during cooking. Soaking and parboiling in plenty of water infuses the rice with moisture; this is necessary for the final step of steaming, which is done without any additional water, and ensures that each kernel will turn out firm, long, succulent, and fluffy. The quality of the rice and particularly the tahdiq is a sign of any Persian cook's ability. Every aspect of the dish—the quality, length, and age of the rice; the amount of soaking and steaming time; the fluffiness, separateness, and color of the finished rice; and the crispness and golden color of the crust (it should never be burned or dark brown)—is a matter considered and judged.
Plain chelow is usually served in three ways: with a khoresh (stew-like gravy) in a dish referred to as chelow-khoresh; with kebabs in chelow-kebab, which is considered the Iranian national dish; or with a stew, such as fesenjan (chicken with pomegranates and walnuts). Chelow is typically accompanied with the ubiquitous turshi (pickles) and, for a vegetarian version, with mast (yogurt) on the side.
Besides serving plain chelow with various stews, Persians synthesized it with the Indian pulavu (pilau). This variation of chelow was first recorded in Persian texts in the sixteenth century, reflecting the culinary advances of the new Safavid Dynasty. In the dish called polow, rice is cooked using the same method used for chelow, but the rice is layered or mixed with various ingredients and then steamed. During steaming, the added ingredients, including precooked meat and vegetables as well as spices, impart flavor and sometimes color into the rice. Some cooks add herbs or tiny green peas, producing a green tint. The number of variations of polow is limited only by the imagination. The more types of polow a cook masters, the higher her or his standing.
The preferred types of rice for making chelow in Persian cooking are a long-grain variety called domsiah (black-tailed), which comes from a rather low-yielding plant, and two lesser varieties, sadri and champa. Domsiah rice grains more than double in length during cooking. In Israel, brands labeled "Persian rice" are commonplace, but in America, basmati makes an acceptable substitute, although the taste and aroma are somewhat different.
Persians feature plain chelow or a polow (usually three or more types of polow) on all special occasions, including the Passover Seder. Carrot and chicken polows are traditionally offered on Rosh Hashanah; the carrots are frequently cut into round slices to resemble coins, which represent prosperity. Shirin polow (sweet rice), also called morasah polow (jeweled rice), is usually served at weddings. Sabzi polow (rice with herbs) is another popular version featured at most occasions. The rice is typically mounded on a large tray and topped with various garnishes and the tahdiq, although this treasured element is sometimes offered on its own platter.
(See also Pilau, Plov, Rice, and Tachin)
Persian Crusty Rice (Chelow)
6 to 8 servings
[PAREVE or DAIRY]
3 cups long-grain rice, such as domsiah or basmati
8 cups water
2 tablespoons table salt or ¼ cup kosher salt
Crust (Tahdiq):
¼ cup vegetable oil or clarified butter
¼ t
easpoon ground turmeric or pinch of (about 20) saffron strands
2 tablespoons water
½ teaspoon ground white pepper (optional)
1. Wash the rice in lukewarm water several times, then soak in cold water to cover for at least 2 hours or overnight. Drain, rinse under cold running water, and drain again.
2. In a large pot, bring the 8 cups water and salt to a boil over medium heat. Add the rice and cook, uncovered, stirring occasionally to prevent sticking, until barely cooked at the core, 7 to 10 minutes. Drain, gently rinse under cold running water, and drain again.
3. To make the crust: In a large, heavy saucepan, heat 2 tablespoons oil over high heat. Stir in the turmeric, water, and, if using, pepper. Spoon the rice over top.
4. Using the handle of a wooden spoon, poke 7 deep scattered holes into the rice. Drizzle with the remaining 2 tablespoons oil.
5. Place a kitchen towel or several layers of paper towels over the top of the pan. Cover tightly with the lid and cook over medium heat until steam appears, about 10 minutes. Reduce the heat to low and simmer until the rice is tender and the bottom is crisp, about 30 minutes.
6. For easier removal of the crust, place the pot in a sink filled with 2 inches cold water and let stand for 10 minutes. Other people prefer to line the bottom of the pot with aluminum foil.
7. Be careful. A cloud of steam will be released when you lift the lid. Run a spatula around the sides of the pot to loosen the rice. Gently stir the rice to fluff. Invert onto a large serving platter. Break the tahdiq into large pieces and scatter over the top.
Chermoula
Chermoula is a relish with a base of parsley or cilantro used as a marinade for fish and chicken, and as a sauce and dip.
Origin: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia
Other names: charmoula, sharmoula, shermula.
Chermoula is a versatile staple of North African kitchens and a relatively inexpensive way to add plenty of flavor to food. Chermoula is commonly added to tagines near the end of cooking to brighten the flavors. All variations contain a basic four ingredients: parsley and/or cilantro, olive oil, lemon juice, and garlic. The Jews of Fez sometimes substitute wine vinegar, an ingredient forbidding to their Moslem neighbors, for the lemon juice. Various versions include assorted spices, chilies, and shallots. Most are finely chopped, with a texture similar to that of Italian pesto, but some are smoother and formed into an emulsion. Although chermoula was originally pounded in a mortar, most cooks today use a blender or food processor. Moroccan Jews enjoy it for weekday fare and on holidays, such as Rosh Hashanah and Passover. Chermoula has become very popular in Israel.
Moroccan Parsley-Lemon Condiment (Chermoula)
about 2 cups
[PAREVE]
1 generous cup finely chopped fresh flat-leaf Italian parsley, or 1 large bunch parsley and 1 large bunch cilantro
6 to 8 cloves garlic, minced
2 teaspoons finely grated lemon zest
1 cup extra-virgin olive oil
2/3 cup fresh lemon juice
1 tablespoon sweet paprika
About 1½ teaspoons ground cumin, or 2 teaspoons cumin seeds, toasted and ground
About 1½ teaspoons table salt or 1 tablespoon kosher salt
About 1½ teaspoons ground coriander (optional)
1 to 2 small red chilies, 1 teaspoon harissa (Northwest African Chili Paste (Harissa)), or a pinch of cayenne (optional)
Using a mortar and pestle, food processor, or blender, process all the ingredients to form a coarse paste. Chermoula is best fresh. To store, drizzle a thin layer of olive oil over the top of the chermoula to stop the discoloration, and store in the refrigerator for up to 3 days.
Cherry
Cherry pits have been discovered in prehistoric sites in western Asia, yet there are no references to this fruit in ancient literature. The cherry, a member of the Rosaceae family, is not mentioned in the Bible or Talmud, although its modern Hebrew name, duvdevan, which is of unknown entomology, is used in the Mishnah for a bunch of grapes. Some contend that the cherry tree originated in Asia Minor near the Black Sea. The Greeks and later the Romans, purportedly in 72 or 79 BCE, brought the cultivated cherry westward from the northeastern Turkish port of Kerasous (modern Giresun), the source of its Greek name, kerasion, which became cerasum in Latin and cherry in En- glish. In Europe, the fruit was grown from Iberia to the Baltic States, becoming a favorite fruit in any place it arrived.
There are two principle types of domesticated cherries, which do not cross-pollinate with each other: sweet cherries and sour cherries (Morello). Sweet cherries are primarily eaten fresh, while sour cherries, which are smaller and paler, are most often used in cooking, baking, and liqueurs. Different varieties of sour cherries range in color from yellow to bright red to dark purple. But cherries are a fragile fruit, with most varieties too delicate for shipping, so only a few varieties show up in the market.
Cherries are part of the cuisine of nearly every Jewish community. Persians use cherries in rice dishes and various sweets. Persians also grind the soft, bitter interior of the pit of the mahlab cherry to make a spice called mahlab. Syrians find cherries complementary to meat dishes, including meatballs and lamb roasts. Cherries are also popular in Europe and used in jams, soups, sauces, strudels, cakes, and liqueurs. The French serve cherries with duckling and other poultry and in desserts. Italians (for crostata), Sephar-dim (for inchusa), and Georgians (for kada) use the fruit to fill double-crusted tarts.
In Alsace, sour cherries are used to make the well-known cherry brandy called kirsch. In eastern Europe, they are macerated with sugar and vodka for vishniak. Since cherries make their appearance in early summer, which means that every so often they arrive in time for Shavuot, cherry dishes became traditional for that holiday, including cherry soup, compote, preserves, blintzes, kreplach (filled pasta), coffee cakes, and strudel.
The cherry may have only reached Israel during the Crusader period and it then disappeared toward the end of the Mamluk period. It was later reintroduced with the growth of Israeli agriculture in the early twentieth century primarily in the mountainous regions of the Golan and the Judean Hills. Today, many Israelis in cooler areas also plant cherries trees in their gardens. The annual early-summer surplus inspires many cooks.
(See also Mahlab and Vishniak)
Chestnut
Chestnut varieties are native to temperate regions of northern Europe, Asia, and America. Of the ten species of chestnut, it is primarily the sweet chestnut, also called the European chestnut and Spanish chestnut, that has served as a staple European food for at least three thousand years; the tree can live up to five hundred years.
Chestnuts grow in burs (casings with fine spines) that contain one to seven nuts and split open when ripe. The creamy yellowish or beige nuts are covered with a bitter, dark reddish brown pellicle (skin) and encased in a hard brown shell. The variety that produces only one large chestnut per bur, called marrone in Italian and marron in French, yields nuts with a high sugar content that are vastly superior to nuts from varieties that produce several nuts per bur. The latter nuts are typically dried and ground into chestnut flour, which, since at least the time of the ancient Romans, has been used to make breads and sweets.
Chestnut shells—along with wild date seeds, pine nuts, and walnuts—have been found in one of the earliest sites of human activity, the Shanidar Cave of northern Iraq. The Greeks brought the chestnut to Europe from Asia Minor. The English word chestnut derives from the Greek kastanea, possibly itself from an old Farsi word kasutah (dry fruit). The chestnut tree is not native to the Levant, nor does it grow well in Israel or Syria, and, therefore, it is not mentioned in the Bible or Talmud. The modern Hebrew name for chestnut, armon, is the result of a misidentification of it as the biblical "plane tree" (armon meaning "naked"), which denoted the oriental plane tree. This confusion may be based on the similarity of the Hebrew armon to the French marron. Consequently, chestnuts are absent from most Middle Eastern cuisines, except that
of northern Iran. Rather, it is in the Caucasus and southern Europe that the chestnut initially entered Jewish cooking and remains important to this day.
When cooked and husked, chestnuts are the sweetest of all nuts. Although today chestnuts are generally regarded as a luxury item, for much of European history they served as poor person's food and were boiled, roasted, or ground into flour. This role only changed in the eighteenth century with the spread of the potato. Chestnuts remain a favorite ingredient in Italian, French, and central European cooking, where they are added to vegetables or used in desserts. Whole cooked chestnuts are often paired with Brussels sprouts and red cabbage. Cooked and chopped, they are added to poultry stuffings and rice pilafs. Pureed, they are used for soups or a garnish, and sweetened to make puddings. Hungarian chestnut puree (gesztenyepure), less sweet than those from Italy and France, is served as a rich dessert accompanied with sweetened whipped cream. It is also used as a spread for toast or crepes, beaten with butter, eggs, chocolate, and rum for a cake filling (gesztenyetorte), and stirred into hot milk or cocoa. Turks and Bukharans cook chestnuts in a lamb stew. The French soak them in a sugar syrup to produce a translucent confection called marrons glacés. Many versions of charoset in northern Italy are based on chestnuts.
Chestnuts are also available dried. As with dried fruit, dried chestnuts are sweeter than fresh. Dried chestnuts are ground to make a sweet golden flour used in breads, pastas, and desserts.
Chicken
The numerous varieties of chickens (males a year or older are called roosters and females are called hens), the world's most populous bird, are all descended from the Southeast Asian red jungle fowl, a bird with a patchwork of reddish, brown, and black feathers that was domesticated more than forty-five hundred years ago in India. A major reason for the chicken's early domestication and subsequent dissemination was that it is a less skillful flyer than any other small bird—it is able to fly for no longer than thirteen seconds—rendering it relatively easy to catch and keep corralled. The fact that the hen can lay eggs on a daily basis for many years also contributed to its desirability. The chicken's move westward was slow. The birds may have arrived in Ur in Sumeria by 2100 BCE (the Third Dynasty), but seem to have taken another millennia to travel much farther west. The Persians, in particular, spread this bird throughout their empire and introduced it to the Greeks. Aristophanes, in his play The Birds (414 BCE), called the chicken "the Median [Persian] bird," indicating the area from which the Greeks had somewhat recently been introduced to it. Chicken bones found in Egypt only date to the Greek period, when the chicken came into widespread usage.