by Gil Marks
During the late Bronze Age, emmer spontaneously hybridized, leading to tetraploid grains. The most important was durum (from the Latin for "hard"), the firmest and most flavorful of all wheat species. This new species was a naked (free-threshing) variety—it easily released the grains from the chaff and therefore could be threshed without first being roasted or pounded, not only reducing the amount of labor involved, but also leaving the grains intact and thus suitable for longer storage. On the other hand, it was extremely difficult for the primitive milling devices to grind the hard durum, particularly the inner portion. The resultant meal had to be repeatedly sifted in sieves with gradually finer mesh to finally accumulate any amount of fine flour (solet), the type required in the Temple. Thus durum was primarily used for porridges, except when bakers wanted to exert the extra effort to produce the fine flour. Instead, during the early biblical period, the hardier emmer (probably the biblical kussemet), which was tolerant of environmental extremes and poorer soils and was generally resistant to insect damage, remained the most widely planted form of wheat in the Middle East.
Wheat, which is mentioned twenty-one times in the Pentateuch, thirteen of which are in conjunction with barley, was the preferred grain in biblical times; barley's value was generally half that of wheat. However, wheat was harder to grow and thresh than barley. Barley served as the bulk of the common person's and the army's diet.
Eventually, emmer spontaneously crossbred with a wild goat grass, giving rise to hexaploid wheat. Among the new species, one in particular, called common wheat or bread wheat (aestivum), was larger in size, higher yielding, and more adaptable than its predecessors. In addition, aestivum contained more starch than durum did and a had high level of gluten; these traits meant that cooks could use it to produce loaves with the light texture and satisfying taste that the modern world associates with bread, and to turn out delicate, flaky pastry. The Romans, in particular, favored aestivum and planted it in all the territories under its dominion. Thus aestivum gradually spread from its home in the Caspian plains and eventually superseded the other species of wheat, becoming the source of most modern flour and far and away the most important of all the myriad species of wheat. Today, aestivum accounts for around 90 percent of the world's wheat crops (and almost all the matza).
Ancient Rome imported much of its wheat, primarily from North Africa and Sicily. After the collapse of the Roman Empire, in most of Europe, wheat—which was still primarily being imported but without the imperial subsidies—grew prohibitively expensive and, subsequently, barley and millet provided the bread and gruels for the masses. Rye and rye-wheat blends were the predominant grains of northern Europe. In the medieval Middle East, wheat remained the most widespread grain. Until a population explosion and Ottoman mismanagement in the late sixteenth century, wheat was grown in abundance in the Levant and Egypt. In the Arab world, wheat was a mainstay of the diet—in the form of bulgur and bread in the Levant, pasta and bread in Egypt, and couscous and bread in the Maghreb. In Iberia, wheat became known as trigo (from the Latin triticu) and quickly emerged as the predominant form of bread and a staple of the diet. As a result, Sephardim early on developed a large repertoire of sophisticated baked goods and wheat dishes. Wheat breads, pies, and cakes were also associated with Sephardic holidays and celebrations.
In the fifteenth century, spurred on by the importation of Middle Eastern knowledge and by the Renaissance, Europeans greatly improved their agricultural techniques and began to change their eating habits. At this time, another wheat product began to assume an increasingly larger role in the European diet—pasta and noodles. Gradually wheat became the predominant grain in much of Europe. Until the sixteenth century, most European wheat was still imported. However, Spanish mismanagement and overtaxation of Sicily led to a marked decline in wheat production, as well as to an enduring poverty on that island. Eventually, European farmers took up the slack and wheat continued its growth in usage, following only corn and rice among the world's most widely grown grains.
Modern flour is typically made from two types of common wheat—red and white. The Mishnah included in the category of chittah (wheat) both shechamtis ("red," the color of the sun in the morning and evening) and levanah (white) wheat. Red wheat contains three extra genes, resulting in a darker color and, due to chemical compounds, a slightly bitter, nutty flavor in the bran. The bran of white wheat is actually an amber color. The protein content of wheat varies depending on such factors as soil, rainfall, temperature, maturity, the milling process, and time of planting. Autumn planting, taking advantage of the cold and moisture of winter, yields a lower protein wheat than spring planting, which does not undergo a dormant state. The moderate climates of the American South yield wheat with much lower amounts of gluten than the more severe environment of the North and Canada.
While the vast majority of westerners only know wheat in flour form, in the Middle East it has a wider assortment of uses, including as farik ("green wheat" in Arabic, corresponding to the biblical aviv, colloquially called frikeh or freekeh), wheat berries (hulled wheat kernels), cracked wheat (jareesh in Arabic), and bulgur.
Since ancient times, there has only been one known product made from immature durum wheat or barley—roasted grains, called frikeh. Today, frikeh is still prepared the old-fashioned way in parts of the Middle East, where, in some countries, it is sold commercially in stores. Traditionally, Arabs harvest wheat kernels for frikeh when the kernels were still ever so slightly green. After the kernels are harvested, they are laid in the late spring sun to dry for at least two hours. At this point, some Arabs traditionally roast the kernels in a pan, while others set them afire to burn the chaff (the kernels' high moisture content protects them from the heat). Today, this is sometimes done for commercial purposes with a flamethrower. After the chaff has blackened, the kernels are thrashed (or rubbed) to remove the hulls. The result is a smoky flavor. One particular advantage of roasted grains is that they cook more quickly than raw kernels; crushing the kernels reduces the cooking time even further.
Frikeh is most certainly identical with the biblical and Talmudic kali (roasted kernels), the type (from barley) mandated for the Omer offering. Kali was a common food item and was presented to Ruth by Boaz. Kali from barley was produced shortly after Passover and kali from durum wheat was prepared around Shavuot, when the grains were green and could only be used for human consumption if roasted.
Wheat berries are unprocessed whole wheat with only the outer husk removed. Hulled wheat berries (also called shelled or peeled wheat) are white in color, lack whole wheat's flavor, and are stickier and softer when cooked. The berry has a nutty flavor and chewy texture and is delicious alone or mixed with other grains. Ancient Middle Easterners cooked wheat berries with meat and mashed the mixture into a smooth consistency, resulted in harisa, a type of Sabbath stew. Wheat berries are used in Middle Eastern soups, stews, salads, casseroles, and puddings. Sweetened and mixed with fruits and nuts, they become a holiday dish—called kofyas in Turkey, ashure or koliva in Greece, and korkoti in Georgia.
Cracked wheat is uncooked durum wheat berries broken into pieces—fine, medium, or coarse. Unlike bulgur, which is precooked before being sold commercially, cracked wheat must be cooked. Cracked wheat is used to make soups, such as the Middle Eastern shorobit il-jareesh, porridges, and salads.
Today, Israel buys 90 percent of its wheat from the American Midwest.
(See also Ashure, Barley, Bread, Bulgur, Chametz, Emmer, Grain, Gruenkern (Green Kern), Matza, Rye, and Semolina)
Whitefish
Landlocked parts of northeastern Europe relied on freshwater fish species, most notably carp, perch, pike, smelts, and whitefish. The term whitefish, veisfische in Yiddish, refers to about thirty species of nonoily fish with dry, white flesh from both Europe and America, such as whiting (also called hake), haddock, and pollack. The Volga River and Caspian Sea yielded whitefish, such as zander (closely related to perch) and other species, in sizable amounts. Consid
ered a trash fish by some, whitefish was relatively inexpensive, but still primarily a Sabbath and festival food. Whitefish, pike, and carp constituted the trio of traditional types of fish used to make gefilte fish. Fresh whitefish were also poached for a Sabbath appetizer.
Whitefish encompasses about thirty species of small fish from Europe and America with dry, white flesh. It is one of three traditional fish, along with carp and pike, used to make gefilte fish. In America, smoked whitefish and a salad made from it are commonly found in delis.
Smoking is one of the oldest methods of preserving fish; first the fish is salted, then the salt is removed and the fish is set aside to dry before being smoked. Before the advent of refrigeration, the fish were heavily salted and smoked until very dry, enabling them to be stored for an extended period. Then in the early twentieth century, as refrigeration spread, the salting became milder, usually a brine, and the smoked fish thus became softer—the new version is more perishable and must be refrigerated.
Ashkenazim in America found species of whitefish from the Great Lakes nearly identical to those of eastern Europe, and soon golden-colored smoked whitefish—as well as lox and smoked sablefish (also called "black cod")—became standard in Jewish delicatessens and appetizing stores and also emerged as Ashkenazic culinary icons. Before the popularity of canned tuna, smoked whitefish, along with pickled herring, provided the basis for Ashkenazic fish salads; gourmets now call it "smoked whitefish pâté." In America, whole golden whitefish, today mainly Alaskan pollack, as well as a creamy whitefish salad, became a popular sight at morning celebrations, such as brits, and Sunday morning brunches. The tiny gold or black roe of whitefish are used to make kosher caviar.
Ashkenazic Whitefish Salad
about 3 cups/6 to 8 servings
[PAREVE]
3 pounds (1 medium whole) smoked whitefish, skinned, boned, and flaked
1 cup mayonnaise
1 cup chopped celery
2 to 3 tablespoons fresh lemon juice
Ground black pepper to taste
In a large bowl, combine all the ingredients. Whitefish salad can be stored in the refrigerator for up to 3 days.
Wine
The Talmud noted, "Wine is the greatest of all medicines. Where there is no wine, drugs are necessary."
In the mid-1970s, archeologists digging in northwest Iran excavated potsherds from a large jar capable of containing about 2.5 gallons, dating back to the late Stone Age. Twenty years later, researchers chemically analyzed a yellowish residue clinging to this Neolithic pottery, revealing the earliest evidence of wine. The date of the pottery, which coincides with humankind's first permanent settlements, demonstrates that wine is at least as old as civilization itself. The pottery in which the wine was stored had a narrow neck—this design allowed the jar to be easily stoppered in order to keep out airborne bacteria. Ancient enologists knew not only how to make wine, but how to flavor and preserve it.
From the onset of the Jewish people at Mount Sinai, wine has been intertwined with Jewish culture and life. The Bible records that after surviving mass destruction while being confined in the ark for a year, Noah's second recorded action was to plant a vineyard. The grape was one of the Talmud's candidates for the forbidden fruit of Eden. On sixteen occasions, the Pentateuch paired wine with grain and olive oil, reflecting the trio's role as the staples of the diet and economy of biblical Israel. In the Temple, wine was used as an offering, generally as a concomitant to other offerings. Wine merits a special benediction: "borei peri hagafen" (Who creates the fruit of the vine). Symbolizing joy and fruitfulness (in Psalms, "wine that cheers man's heart"), wine is an integral element of many Jewish rituals, including Kiddush, Havdalah, the Passover Seder, brit milah, and weddings.
Sam Schapiro, originally from Galicia (now southern Poland), started the first kosher wine company in America, operating out of New York's Lower East Side. The thick sweet wine was made from Concord grapes grown in the state.
The sun-drenched limestone slopes of the Holy Land were particularly suited for viticulture, as they featured hot, dry summers and moderate winter temperatures. Vineyards flourished on the terraced hillsides of ancient Judea. Some vineyards were mere plots consisting of only a handful of vines, while others were massive. The Israelites learned to train the vines on trellises. Isaiah detailed the time-honored process of tending a vineyard: "He dug it, and cleared it of stones, and planted it with the choicest vines, and built a [watch] tower in the middle of it [to spot trespassers and animals], and also hewed out [from stone] a vat [winepress] there, and he hoped it would yield grapes, and it brought forth stinking grapes."
In ancient Israel, the grape harvest, a time of great festiveness, began in the Jordan Valley in late July and along the coast in August and reached its peak throughout the country in September. When it was time for the harvest, vineyard workers left their homes to camp in temporary booths close to the grapes. Encouraged by song, the pickers performed the arduous task of harvesting the grapes—they cut the clusters with pruning hooks, placed them in special workbaskets, then carrying the accumulated fruit to the nearby winepress.
The harvested grapes were stomped by foot in a vat. The crushing was customarily accompanied with the rhythmic chants of the treaders. Rock vats from the biblical period have been found in nearly every part of the country, generally in great abundance, attesting to the pervasiveness of wine in the land. The crushed grapes were then transferred via clay jars to a fermentation vat or large crocks. The liquid obtained from the initial stomping (without heavy pressure) was stored separately, as it was of much higher quality. The lowest-quality juice was produced by mixing water with the dross; the mixture was not well-regarded and stored separately as well.
Archeological evidence at Gibeon, a city in the tribe of Benjamin about 4.5 miles north of Jerusalem, renowned for its famous biblical battle recorded in Joshua, reflects the magnitude of wine production in ancient Israel. Near the "Pool of Gibeon" were discovered pre-Babylonian underground facilities for a commercial-scale winery, including sixty six rock-cut circular vaults about six feet deep and in diameter, some used as presses and others, safeguarded by waterproof covers and naturally cooled, for fermentation vats. Nearby were numerous stoppers, seals, weights, and, notably, handles of clay wine jugs, neatly inscribed in ancient Hebrew with the names of the city, vineyard owners, and various nearby Judean towns to which wine was to be delivered. The storage capacity of the Gibeon cellar equals about 25,000 gallons, on a par with many modern wineries. Gibeon was destroyed by the Babylonians, bringing to an end this ancient wine center.
Hebrew contains numerous words for various stages and types of vines, grapes, and wine, denoting the importance of the vine and wine in ancient Israel and their effect on the Israelites. The word yayin, derived from the root yvn (that which bubbles), an obvious reference to the fermentation process, was used in the Bible both as a generic term for wine and, more specifically, a term for wine in its first year. In order for wine to be considered proper for religious uses, it must be at least 40 days old, having undergone secondary fermentation, at which point it passes from the tirash (immature/unfinished) stage into yayin.
As the grapes were crushed, the clear grape juice was exposed to the naturally occurring yeast adhering to the skins and stems. In the warm climate of Israel, the yeast almost immediately began to convert the sugar into alcohol and carbon dioxide, a process called fermentation. As long as the grape juice was not boiled, thereby killing the yeast, the fungi would continue to feed on the sugar and reproduce. If the juice was boiled before it had been fermented (before alcohol had been produced), the juice would spoil relatively quickly, while fermentation allowed it to be stored for a year or more.
As the level of alcohol rose, the yeast was killed and the bitter dead cells (shmarim) sank to the bottom of the container. The bitter dregs are mentioned in Psalms: "There is a cup in God's hand, with strong red wine, full of mixture, and He pours out of the same, surely the dregs the
reof, all the wicked of the earth shall drain them, and drink them." Eventually, as more and more of the yeast died, the bubbling subsided. The wine was strained to remove as much of the undesirable dregs as possible. The immature wine was then transferred to airtight fermentation containers, commonly large earthenware jugs with a narrow neck, to mature and develop flavor during the slower secondary fermentation.
After the secondary fermentation of about forty days, the wine was strained to remove any sediment, then transferred to wineskins or amphorae—large ceramic jugs with a pointed bottom and narrow top—for storage or transport. Leather bottles were useful because new ones were pliable enough to stretch as the wine fermented. Israeli amphorae were generally tall with large handles and little or no decoration, unlike the typically ornate versions from Greece and Rome. The amphorae's handles were frequently inscribed with the name of the city where the wine had been produced, the winemaker's stamp, and sometimes the year and particular vintage. The inner surface of the amphorae was frequently coated with a resin, such as terebinth, which acted as a preservative and also imparted a pine flavor and aroma. The jars were filled to the brim and the wine was frequently topped with a thin layer of olive oil to seal out the air; the jars were then capped and sealed with pitch, another attempt to keep out the air. Amphorae made possible longtime storage, especially in caves or cool cellars. Glass bottles were not utilized for wine storage until the first century CE, when the Romans developed mass-production techniques, and wooden casks were not used until a century later.