Figure 1.22
Mosquito larvae. As seen on the picture, larvae group together in standing water. The darker structure at the top center of the image is one pupa, another stage of the mosquito lifecycle. Mosquitoes can transfer diseases between animals, including West Nile Fever and malaria. You can avoid mosquito bites by covering your arms and legs while outside during the early morning and late evening, and by applying an insect repellant.
However, it is worthwhile considering that until October 2007 there had been a total of 26, 997 confirmed cases of West Nile virus infection, and 1,038 confirmed deaths from the disease. Compare this to the estimated 15 to 60 million people in the United States who are infected with the flu virus every year, and the estimated 36,000 people who die every year from flu complications.
So the next time you are shocked or horrified by a seemingly gloomy forecast in the media, consider how the issue fits into the bigger story.
Biotechnology: Science Applied to Life
Biotechnology is technology based on biology; it involves the use of organisms or biological processes and can be especially used in agriculture, food science, and medicine. It is the application of biological knowledge to develop tools and products that allow us to control and adapt to our environment.
Biotechnology has effected society and in a number of ways. Although it has been used for centuries in traditional production processes, such as animal breeding shown in Figure below, crop growing, and wine making, modern biotechnology is a recent field of science. Bioengineering is the science upon which all biotechnological applications are based. New developments and new approaches are developing at a very fast pace. Biotechnology combines scientific fields such as genetics, molecular biology, biochemistry, and cell biology.
Figure 1.23
Chicks standing on a picture of a genetic map of a chicken. Mapping the genome of organisms is a major part of biotechnology.
The field of modern biotechnology is thought to have largely begun in 1980, when the United States Supreme Court ruled that a genetically-modified microorganism could be patented. Indian-born researcher, Ananda Chakrabarty, had developed a bacterium that was able to break down crude oil, which he proposed to use in treating oil spills.
Applications of Biotechnology
Biotechnology has applications in four major industrial areas, including health care, crop production and agriculture, non-food uses of crops such as biofuels, and environmental uses. One application of biotechnology uses organisms to produce things such as nutritional supplements like vitamins or amino acids, and milk products like cheese, kefir, and yogurt. Biotechnology is also used to recycle, treat waste, and clean up sites contaminated by industrial waste. The use of microorganisms to clean up contaminated sites such as an oil spill is called bioremediation.
Medical applications of biotechnology include designing organisms to produce medicines such as antibiotics, or other chemicals. Medical applications for people also include gene therapy which could be used to treat a person who has a genetic disorder such as cystic fibrosis.
An example of an agricultural application is designing plants to grow under specific environmental conditions or in the presence (or absence) of certain chemicals, such as the cress shown in Figure below. The cress plant has been genetically modified to turn red only in the presence of nitrogen dioxide, a chemical that is released by landmines and other unexploded bombs. Researchers at the Danish biotechnology company that developed the plant hope that the seeds can be spread over former battleground areas where they will grow and mark the sites of the explosives, thus speeding up the land mine removal process.
Figure 1.24
This thale cress has been genetically modified to turn red only in the presence of nitrogen dioxide, a chemical marker for landmines or other unexploded bombs. Researchers hope that the cress seeds can be spread over former battleground areas, where they will grow and mark the sites of explosives, thus lessening the risk to the people and animals who live in those areas and work to remove the explosives.
Another hope is that biotechnology might produce more environmentally friendly solutions than traditional industrial agriculture. An example of this is the engineering of a plant to express a pesticide, which cuts out the need to apply pesticides to the plants. The corn plants in Figure below have been genetically modified (changed) to produce a toxin that comes from a naturally occurring soil bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis. The Bt toxin kills the pests that eat and destroy corn crops. Whether or not biotechnology products such as this are more environmentally friendly in the long run is a hot topic of debate.
Figure 1.25
People looking at a sign that explains what the genetically modified corn does. In an effort to reduce corn stem-borer infestations, corporate and public researchers came together to develop genetically modified corn varieties suitable for Kenya. The corn plants contain a gene ( gene) from a naturally occurring bacterium called . The Bt gene causes the corn plants to make Bt toxin which kills the pests that feed on the plants.
Use of Computers in Science and Medicine
Bioinformatics is an interdisciplinary field which helps solve biological problems using computers. Lots of information is gathered from the mapping of DNA sequences and other related types of research. Bioinformatics allows scientists to gather this information, share it and to use it. It also speeds up the process of analyzing data the scientists have collected. The field may also be called computational biology. Bioinformatics plays a key role in various areas, and it is a key part of the biotechnology and the pharmaceutical industries.
Psychologists David Patterson and Hunter Hoffman of the University of Washington in Seattle developed a virtual world computer game they called “Snow World” shown in Figure below, in an effort to reduce the pain experienced by patients undergoing burn treatment and other medical procedures. They found that people who became fully engaged in the virtual reality snow world reported 60 percent less pain. This technology offers a promising new way to manage pain. The researchers say that an interactive digital world may distract us from reality because our minds focus on just a few things at once.
Figure 1.26
A scene from the interactive Snow World. In this virtual reality game, players can move through the snowy landscape, throw snowballs, and watch penguins waddle past them. Researchers found that playing this game can distract people from the sense of burning pain. The researchers used healthy undergraduate student volunteers in these virtual world study to determine that perception can affect pain sensation.
Lesson Summary
The reliability of scientific knowledge comes partly from the objectivity of scientific methods, and also from scientists discussing ideas with each other. In talking with each other, researchers must use more than just their scientific understanding of the world. They must also be able to convince other scientists of the accuracy of their ideas.
Graphics help to illustrate ideas that would otherwise be too confusing to describe in words only.
The peer review process aims to make authors meet the standards of their area of study, and to meet the expected standards of science in general.
Ethics is the discipline concerned with what is morally good and bad, right and wrong. Bioethics is the social ethics of biology and medicine; it deals with the ethical implications of biological research and applications, especially in medicine. Bioethicists are concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among biology, biotechnology, medicine, politics, law, and philosophy.
Scientists need to be able to tell each other and the public about their research and the results of their research. These two groups make up two very different audiences for scientists. Presenting academic subjects in a readable and engaging way, allows the general pubic to understand what research is being done and why. Presentation of generally written science appeals to people because it allows the reader to relate the subject to their life and experiences.
You ca
nnot be fully informed about the scientific issues you read about unless you understand the science behind the issues, or have the ability to think like a scientist to analyze them.
The cost of equipment, transportation, rent, and salaries for the people carrying out the research all need to be considered before a scientific study can start. The systems of financial support for scientists and their work have been important influences of the type of research and the pace of research. Today, funding for research comes from many different sources.
Biotechnology is the application of biological knowledge to develop tools and products that allow us to control and adapt to our environment.
Review Questions
What is bias in scientific terms and how is it relevant to science?
Who do you think the ethical rules about scientific research are aimed toward? Who do they protect?
Investigate a science-based societal issue that affects your town, city, or state. Research literature and news reports about the issue, analyzing the data, and examine what an individual person, the community, the local government, or federal government could do about this issue. Present your finding in the form of a poster or computer slide presentation to your class.
Find a science article that you believe could be improved upon by adding a graph, a picture, or a drawing. Rewrite the article in your own words, and present it to your class, along with your added graphics.
How has biotechnology affected modern life?
Science and biotechnology are pursued for different purposes. Do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer.
Identify an ethical issue that is raised by biotechnology.
Identify an ethical issue that is raised by media coverage of science.
Why is it a good idea to study science even if you do not want to become a career scientist?
What are three sources of funding for scientific research?
How might ethics affect funding for scientific research?
Further Reading / Supplemental Links
http://www.accessexcellence.org/
http://www.ipy.org/
http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn10971
http://response.restoration.noaa.gov/faq_topic.php?faq_topic_id=1
http://www.milliontreesla.org/
http://www.ctv.ca/servlet/ArticleNews/story/CTVNews/20070120/DCA_feature_070121/20070122?hub=Health
http://www.newscientist.com/article/mg19325890.200-no-wonder-drug.html
http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/biobeat/gallery/index.html
http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5606a1.htm
http://publications.nigms.nih.gov/findings/sept05/bedside_sept05.html
Vocabulary
abstract
A brief, usually one-paragraph, summary of the work.
academic conference
A conference for researchers (not always academics) to present and discuss their work.
animal cloning
The ability and usefulness of scientists cloning animals for various needs, such as vaccine development, tissues for transplant into humans such as heart valve, and increased food production.
bioethicists
People concerned with the ethical questions that arise in the relationships among biology, biotechnology, medicine, politics, law, and philosophy.
bioinformatics
An interdisciplinary field which helps solve biological problems using computers; may also be called computational biology.
bioremediation
The use of microorganisms to clean up contaminated sites, such as an oil spill.
biotechnology
Technology based on biology; it involves the use of organisms or biological processes and can be especially used in agriculture, food science, and medicine.
conflict of interest
A situation in which a researcher has professional or personal interests that are at odds with each other.
euthanasia
The choice by a terminally ill person to have medical assistance in dying.
ethics
The discipline concerned with what is morally good and bad, right and wrong.
peer review
The process of opening a scientist’s research or ideas (in the form of a scientific paper) to examination by others scientist who are experts in the same field.
reproducibility
The ability to repeat experiments and get the same results.
research scientist
A person that does scientific investigations and makes discoveries.
science magazine
A publication with news, opinions and reports about science; written for a non-expert audience.
scientific article
A scientific article discussing new research and findings; usually published in a scientific journal.
scientific consensus
The collective judgment, position, and opinion of a community of scientists in a particular field of science, at a particular time.
scientific journal
A publication that communicate and document the results of research carried out in universities and various other research institutions.
scientific misconduct
The violation of standard codes of scholarly conduct and ethical behavior in professional scientific research.
stem cell research
Research involving stem cells, usually harvested from human embryos.
systematic bias
A bias that is introduced from a flaw in measurements.
Points to Consider
Bias can also be introduced into an investigation by uncalibrated or broken equipment. Consider ways to avoid this type of bias in your investigations.
If you had to explain to a younger student the importance of learning biology, how would you go about it?
Rules for correct behavior in the lab include not eating or drinking, dressing correctly, and no horseplay. These rules are for general safety in the lab, but could they also be considered lab ethics?
Tools and Techniques
Lesson Objectives
Identify the units of measurement that scientists use.
Contrast light microscopes and electron microscopes.
Identify three items that are common to science labs.
Outline the importance of mathematics to scientific research.
Outline what students and researchers can do to stay safe while working in the lab.
Introduction
Scientists need to know they are talking the same language when it comes to measurements and analysis of data. Therefore a “standard language of measurement” called the SI system is used in scientific research. Other standard procedures and techniques are carried out so that scientists from around the world can understand what was done to get to a particular conclusion. These involve standard laboratory procedures and equipment, such as microscopes.
Units of Measurement
The measurements that scientists use are based on the International System of Units (SI), which is a form of the metric system. The term SI is shortened from the French term Le Système international d'unités. It is the world's most widely used system of units, both in science and business. It is useful to scientists because it is based on multiples of 10. The SI was developed in 1960 from an older metric system and is used in almost every country.
The SI is not static, as the technology of measurement progresses, units are created and definitions are changed through international agreement among many nations. The international system of units is made up of a seven base units, shown in Table 2.2 below lists SI Base Units. From these seven base units several other units are derived.
SI Base Units Name Symbol Quantity
meter m length
kilogram kg mass
second s time
ampere A electric current
kelvin K thermal energy (temperature)
mole mol amount of substance
candela cd luminous intensity<
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A prefix may be added to SI units to make a multiple of the original unit. An SI prefix is a name or symbol that is put before a unit of measure (or its symbol) to form a decimal or a multiple of the unit. For example, kilo- is a multiple of a thousand and milli- is a multiple of a thousandth, so there are one thousand millimeters in a meter, and one thousand meters in a kilometer. All prefixes are multiples of 10, as you can see from Table 2.3 below lists SI Prefixes. The prefixes are never combined; a millionth of a kilogram is a milligram not a microkilogram.
SI Prefixes Name Symbol Factor of 10
tera- T 1,000,000,000,000 (1012) trillion (thousand billion)
giga- G 1,000,000,000 (109) billion (thousand million)
mega- M 1,000,000 (106) million
kilo- k 1000 (103) thousand
hecto- h 100 (102) hundred
deca- da 10 (101) ten
deci- d 1 (10-1) tenth
centi- c 0.1 (10-2) hundredth
milli- m 0.01 (10-3) thousandth
micro- µ 0.00001 (10-6) millionth
nano- n 0.00000001 (10-9) billionth
pico- p 0.00000000001 (10-12) trillionth
The Laboratory
A laboratory is a place that has controlled conditions in which scientific research, experiments, and measurement may be carried out. Scientific laboratories can be found in schools and universities, in industry, in government facilities, and even aboard ships and spacecraft, such as the one shown in Figure below.
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