by Mike Ashley
Sandys, Frederick (1832–1904), Morgan-le-Fay (1863), Vivien (1863)
Schmalz, Herbert Gustav (1856–1935), Elaine (1885)
Shaw, Byam (1872–1919), The Lady of Shalott (1898)
Spencer-Stanhope, John Roddam (1829–1908), Sir Gawaine and the Damsels at the Fountain (1857) for the Oxford Union murals; Morgan le Fay
Stillman, Marie Spartali (1843–1927), Sir Tristram and La Belle Iseult (1873)
Sullivan, Edmund Joseph (1869–1933), The Lady of Shalott (1899)
Wallis, Henry (1830–1916), Elaine Floats Down to Camelot (1861)
Waterhouse, J.W. (1849–1917), seven paintings of the Lady of Shalott from The Lady of Shalott (1888) to I am Half Sick of Shadows (1915), Tristram and Isolde (1916)
Watson Homer (Canadian, 1855–1936), The Death of Elaine (1877)
Watts, George Frederic (1817–1904), Sir Galahad (1862), Britomart and her Nurse (1878)
Whall, Veronica (1887–1967), 72 stained-glass windows in Arthur’s Hall, Tintagel (1931–33)
Wheelwright, Rowland (1870–1955), Enid and Gereint (1907)
For those wishing to explore further, the authoritative works on Arthurian art are The Arthurian Revival in Victorian Art by Debra N. Mancoff (Garland, 1990), The Legends of King Arthur in Art by Muriel Whitaker (Brewer, 1990) and The Quest for the Grail: Arthurian Legend in British Art 1840–1920 by Christine Poulson (Manchester University Press, 1999).
Tennyson’s work encouraged others to visit the Arthurian world. In 1852, Matthew Arnold composed the first modern English treatment of the Tristan story, in the verse romance Tristram and Iseult, which includes, as a coda, Vivian’s beguilement of Merlin. Algernon Swinburne was also fascinated by the Tristan legend. An early attempt, “Queen Yseult”, remained unfinished, but in 1882 Swinburne completed Tristram of Lyonesse. Swinburne believed that Tennyson had debased the purity of the original story, and that Arnold had been too basic. He wanted to restore to all its glory what he held as “the loveliest of medieval legends”, showing Tristram as a doomed hero, a victim of fate. Swinburne also wrote The Tale of Balen (1896).
The story of Tristan also attracted the world of opera in the form of Richard Wagner. Wagner had already entered Arthurian territory, or at least Grail territory, with Lohengrin (1850), the story of Parsifal’s son who comes to earth as a maiden’s champion but is bound by the Grail oath to keep his anonymity, which is shattered when he is forced to give his name. Wagner would return to the Grail Quest with Parsifal (1882). But his first major Arthurian opera was Tristan und Isolde (1865), based loosely on Gottfried von Strassburg’s romance though reduced to basics for dramatic effect. Wagner’s characters are ruled by passion, hate turning to love, love turning to despair. Tristan und Isolde is perhaps more in the mould of Romeo and Juliet than an Arthurian romance, but its power demonstrates the allure the story had for the Victorians.
Wagner also pared Parsifal down in order to create a Christian allegory of a young innocent hero, Parsifal, who must overcome physical love to command a sacrificial love of mankind as a means of combating the evil sorcerer Klingsor, who has used the temptress Kundry to seduce Amfortas, guardian of the Grail.
In 1864 the West Country antiquary Robert Stephen Hawker, parson of Morwenstowe, published his own mystical poem of the Grail quest in The Quest of the Sangraal, the first of four planned parts, though no more appeared.
From poetry, art and music the Arthurian saga returned to the theatre with King Arthur by Joseph Comyns Carr, first performed at the Lyceum in London in January 1895. The first play to attempt an authentic adaptation of the Arthurian romance rather than using Geoffrey’s History, it was an artistic and critical success. Burne-Jones designed the scenery and costumes, Sir Arthur Sullivan provided the incidental music. Henry Irving played Arthur to Ellen Terry’s Guenevere.
Soon after the appearance of the first edition of Idylls of the King, James Knowles (later Sir James) completed his modern rendition of Morte Darthur as The Legends of King Arthur and His Knights (1862), which he dedicated to Tennyson. It led to a firm friendship with Tennyson, and the poet claimed that it was Knowles who encouraged him to return to the Arthurian world to continue the Idylls. Knowles’s version proved extremely popular and encouraged other adaptations of Malory’s work. There was a profusion of abridgments and adaptations of Morte Darthur from the late Victorian era onwards. Anyone interested in a detailed listing should consult Sir Thomas Malory: An Anecdotal Bibliography of Editions 1485–1985 by Barry Gaines (1990).
Amongst these were some beautiful illustrated editions of both Malory and Tennyson. For Idylls these include Gustave Doré’s famed artwork in the 1868 edition and Eleanor Fortescue-Brickdale’s beautiful paintings for the Hodder & Stoughton 1911 edition. Morte d’Arthur includes those by Aubrey Beardsley (Dent, 1893/4), W. Russell Flint (Riccardi, 1910/11) and Arthur Rackham (Macmillan, 1917). The American Sidney Lanier adapted it as The Boy’s King Arthur (Scribner, 1880), with a later edition illustrated by N.C. Wyeth (1917) being one of the most admired of all printings. In Britain, Andrew Lang adapted it as Tales of King Arthur and the Round Table (Longman, 1905), whilst in America Howard Pyle illustrated his own adaptations in four books, The Story of King Arthur and His Knights (1903), The Story of the Champions of the Round Table (1905), The Story of Sir Launcelot and his Companions (1907) and The Story of the Grail and the Passing of Arthur (1911).
This profusion of books, and there were plenty more, inevitably led to a parody of the Arthurian world which Mark Twain was only too happy to provide in A Connecticut Yankee at the Court of King Arthur (1889). It was not long before someone attempted to produce a genuine historical novel based on the true Dark Age world. This fell to William H. Babcock with Cian of the Chariots (1898), complete with extensive notes showing the thoroughness of his research. The modern Arthurian novel had arrived.
From then on authors began to produce their own original versions of the Arthurian story, creating their own characters and worlds, not necessarily beholden to Malory or Geoffrey or Chrétien. This “modern” treatment of Arthur dominated the twentieth century, and the next chapter provides a working checklist of all major Arthurian novels.
SECTION 3
THE BIG PICTURE
21
SCRIBES OF THE ROUND TABLE: MODERN ARTHURIAN NOVELS
The twentieth century saw an explosion of novels either set in the Arthurian world, or featuring Arthurian characters in other settings. The production increased significantly after T.H. White completed his sequence The Once and Future King (1958), and shows no sign of abating. It is impossible here to list every book and story that has appeared over the last century. The most comprehensive bibliography of Arthurian texts is The Arthurian Annals compiled by Dan Nastali and Phil Boardman (OUP, 2004), whilst another useful compendium is The Return from Avalon, by Raymond H. Thompson (Greenwood Press, 1985).
The following list is in alphabetical order by the author’s surname. Where known, authors’ dates are provided. I have restricted coverage to books available in the English language and which are set in a recognizable Arthurian setting. An (h) after the title denotes those which take place in a realistic, historical Dark Age world; an (m) denotes those set in the quasi-historical world of the medieval romances but which still endeavour to be historical; and an (f) marks those that are fantasies, but still set in a form of historical milieu. I have not included standard retellings of Malory’s Morte d’Arthur. I have excluded all works with a contemporary or science fiction setting unless it is directly related to one of the above. I have also excluded most time-shift stories, such as Mark Twain’s A Connecticut Yankee, and those where Arthur and his knights are transported every which-where. Books for young adults are included (designated YA), but I have excluded those for young children.
I have listed the first publication details only, but have noted recently available reprints for books otherwise long out of print. US indicates that the book first appeared in the United States, UK in th
e United Kingdom. The list excludes poetry and drama but includes significant short story collections. The emphasis is on novels. I have asterisked those titles which I believe should serve as a basic Arthurian library.
Although I have excluded poetry I must at least mention the following. No discussion of Arthurian-influenced works can omit reference to The Waste Land by T.S. Eliot (1922), even though he drew primarily upon Jessie Weston’s study of the Grail legend, From Ritual to Romance, rather than directly from the stories. Nevertheless, Eliot’s appropriation of the imagery of the desolation caused by the First World War shows the continued relevance of the Arthurian stories to the twentieth century. The same fusion of the traditional with the modern makes the three book-length poems by Edward Arlington Robinson of timeless relevance. The most traditional is Tristram (1927), for which he won the Pulitzer Prize, whilst the earlier Merlin (1917) and especially the highly spiritual Lancelot (1920) show the impact of World War I. Robinson, like Tennyson, sees the Arthurian heroes as seeking impossible ideals, which are more likely to be the cause of destruction than of salvation.
Attanasio, A.A. (b. 1951), The Dragon and the Unicorn (UK, 1994); Arthor (UK, 1995; US as The Eagle and the Sword, 1997); The Wolf and the Crown (US, 1998; UK as The Perilous Order, 1999); The Serpent and the Grail (US, 1999) (f)
The four books follow, to a degree, the basic pattern of Arthur’s life, with a fifth-century setting, but Merlin, Morgan le Fay and the Grail receive a cosmic pseudo-scientific explanation. The ‘Dragon’ is the sentient power of the Earth, whilst the ‘unicorn’ is a spiritual Sun-being that takes on unicorn form when in touch with the Earth’s dragon power. There are two opposing energy forces: the Fire Lords, or angels, who strive for order and progress and seek to stave off the impending Dark Ages in Europe, and the demons, one of whom, Lailoken, becomes the magus Merlin, the focus of the first book. His teacher, Bleys, was a Chinese pilgrim who has harnessed the power of the unicorn and become immortal. Arthor, or Aquila Regalia Thor, whose youth is covered in the second book, is none other than the Celtic hero Cuchulain, reborn in exchange for Uther Pendragon’s soul. Unaware of his origins, Arthor is a violent, un-self-redeeming bully who rebels against his earthly destiny; it requires the intervention of Merlin to keep him on the true path. In the subsequent volumes, but especially in The Wolf and the Crown, Attanasio follows the Arthurian legend as we know it, but within his cosmological framework, portraying a demigodlike Arthor striving to keep order in a world of cataclysmic change.
(Note: Attanasio’s Kingdom of the Grail (US, 1992) is not a grail story but an historical romance set during the Crusades.)
Atterton, Julian, The Last Harper (UK, 1983) (h)
YA novel about the youth of Taliesin, first called Gwion, who flees to Urien’s court during the Saxon raids and is taught by Myrddin, whom he succeeds as bard. There are also some Arthurian references in Knights of the Sacred Blade (UK, 1989) set in twelfth-century Northumberland.
Babcock, William H. (1849–1922), Cian of the Chariots (US, 1890)(h)
The earliest novel to recreate an authentic sixth-century setting for Arthur’s battle against the Saxons. Babcock has Caerleon at Leicester in the British Midlands and endeavours to locate all of Arthur’s nine battles across Britain. This is on the internet at
Baldry, Cherith (b. 1947), Exiled from Camelot (US, 2001) (m)
Cherith Baldry has long been Kay’s champion, seeking to restore his reputation in several stories, and this novel is based on the episode in which Kay is believed to have killed Arthur’s son Loholt. Kay is sent into exile and joins forces with a renegade knight who is seeking to undermine Camelot, forcing Kay to try and save Camelot and prove his innocence.
Barron, T.A. The Lost Years of Merlin (US, 1996) (f)
The first of YA series that looks at the teenage years of Merlin before the encounter with Vortigern. First known as Emrys, but with no memory, he is washed up on the Welsh coast and raised by a healer woman, Branwen, whom he later saves from being burned at the stake. He loses his sight but gains a “second sight”. He begins a quest to find his origins and this takes him to the mythical Otherworld of Fincayra, where he learns that his real name is Merlin. His adventures, many drawn from Celtic legend, continue in The Seven Songs of Merlin (US, 1997), The Fires of Merlin (US, 1998), The Mirror of Merlin (US, 1999) and The Wings of Merlin (US, 2000). The fourth book takes Merlin into his future where he sees himself as an old man who encounters a young Arthur. The last two books also sowed the seed for the Great Tree of Avalon series which began with Child of the Dark Prophecy (US, 2004).
Berger, Thomas (b. 1924), Arthur Rex (US, 1978) (m)
An admirable attempt to update Malory, in a mock medieval tongue, and with much humour, bawdiness and irony. Also incorporates the story of Gawain and the Green Knight. In Berger’s eyes, Arthur “was not historical but everything he did was true.” Berger develops the relationship between the characters, especially Launcelot and Gawain, and explores the complexities of Morgan and Guinevere.
Borchardt, Alice, The Dragon Queen (US, 2001) (f)
First in a proposed trilogy, “Tales of Guinevere”, by the sister of Anne Rice. It takes great liberties with the origins of Guinevere by presenting the unorthodox view of her as a sorceress, raised by a shape-shifter and a druid, who befriends and takes control over the dying breed of dragons, becoming a Boudicca-like warrior queen with magical powers. The second book is The Raven Warrior (US, 2003).
Borowsky, Marvin (1907–1969), The Queen’s Knight (US, 1955) (m)
Screenwriter Borowsky’s rather downbeat view of a slow-witted Arthur set up as a puppet king by the Lords of the Council but who tries his best nonetheless. He succeeds to a degree thanks to the prowess of Lancelot and even wins Guinevere’s respect, but has not the skills to succeed.
Bowers, Gwendolyn, Brother to Galahad (US, 1963) (m)
A YA novel about the Grail Quest and its aftermath as seen through the eyes of the Welsh Hugh of Alleyn, squire to Sir Galahad.
Bradley, Marion (1930–1999), Mists of Avalon (US, 1982) (h)
A significant bestseller which put the Arthurian world back into the market, this book retells the traditional story of Arthur but from the female viewpoint, primarily that of Morgaine, who here is both Arthur’s half-sister and the mother of Mordred. Bradley paints strong characters and a believable world, in which the elder religions clash with Christianity and an easily manipulated Arthur finds kingship a constant series of dilemmas. A subsequent book, The Forest House (US, 1993), describing the fate of the Druids at the time of the Roman invasion, became a prequel to Mists by establishing Avalon as the centre of the Mother Goddess religion, and a successor to Atlantis. It introduces the character of Gawen whose fate is told in the sequel, Lady of Avalon (US, 1997), which bridges the gap between the other two books in three episodes tracing Gawen’s reincarnations as the Defender of Britain. Since Bradley’s death Diana L. Paxson has developed the series with Priestess of Avalon (UK, 2000) about Helena, the mother of Constantine the Great, and Ancestors of Avalon (US, 2004), which goes back to Atlantis.
Bradshaw, Gillian, Hawk of May (US, 1980), Kingdom of Summer (US, 1981), In Winter’s Shadow (US, 1982), all three reissued in one volume as Down the Long Wind (UK, 1988) (h)
This increasingly bleak sequence features Gwalchmai (Gawain) as the main character, his struggles (rather than adventures) told from three different viewpoints. He tells his own story in the first book, from his youth and his flight to the Isles of the Blessed, to entering Arthur’s service. The second, told by Gwalchmai’s servant, concerns the clash between Gwalchmai as the Champion of the Light and his mother Morgawse as the Queen of Darkness and his quest for his lost love Elidan. The third, told by Gwynhwyfar, shows Gwalchmai’s growing despair for Arthur’s court which turns to revenge when his son is killed. Bradshaw creates a believable historical Arthurian world seen from a new perspective.
Bulla, Clyde Robert (b.19
14), The Sword in the Tree (US, 1956) (m)
When his father is reported dead and his uncle takes over his castle, young Shan seeks help from King Arthur in the form of Sir Gareth. The book was reprinted (Morrow, 2000).
Canning, Victor (1911–1986), The Crimson Chalice (UK, 1976), The Circle of the Gods (UK, 1977), The Immortal Wound (UK, 1978), all three reissued in one volume as The Crimson Chalice (UK, 1978) (h)
A partly successful attempt at creating a different historical background for Arthur (here called Arturo), only loosely connected to tradition. The first book follows the struggles of Arthur’s parents (Baradoc and Gratia) against the Saxons, the second (and best) book follows Arthur’s life up to Badon and enmity with Ambrosius, and the final volume, including the Grail quest, describes Arthur’s inevitable decline. Arturo is shown as a rebel driven by destiny.
Carmichael, Douglas (b.1923), Pendragon (US, 1977; new edition, 2000) (h)
A strongly visualised historical novel of the first years of Arthur’s reign working through each of the twelve battles, showing how Arthur (here Artorius) consolidates the kingdom, culminating in Badon Hill. Most of Arthur’s warriors are present, even at this early stage, including Caius, Bedwyr and Lanceolatus. Guenevere is Vinavera, and the book explores the start of their relationship. Carmichael wrote a sequel, The Last of the Dragons, which remains unpublished, though an episode was reworked as the story “Madoc the Door Ward” in The Mammoth Book of Arthurian Legends, edited by Mike Ashley (UK/US, 1998).
Chadwick, Elizabeth, First Knight (US, 1995) (m)
The book of the film (see page 556).
Chant, Joy (b.1945), The High Kings (US, 1983) (m)
As if recounted by bards in Arthur’s day, this is a series of stories based on the main characters in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History, from the arrival of Brutus to the time of Arthur. Only the final chapter, “Chief Dragon of the Island”, covers Arthur.