17. ‘T. B.’, The Rebellion of Naples, 76–7 (discussed by D'Alessio, Contagi, 116–30, and Hugon, Naples insurgée, 328–35, together with other similar works). Burke, ‘Masaniello: a response’, 198, notes that rebels in Dordrecht in 1651 invoked the example of Masaniello. Polišenský, War and society, 186–95, and Villari, Elogio, 51–67, discuss other examples of the interest shown in the revolt by foreign governments.
18. Hugon, Naples, 219–21, citing the Manifesto and the Oath; Te Brake, Shaping history, 109, quoting Discorso fatto al popolo napoletano per eccitarlo alla libertà (1647).
19. Dunthorne, ‘Resisting monarchy’, 126, quoting Althusius and Guez de Balzac; Quevedo, La rebelión de Barcelona (1641) in Obras, I, 283; Parker, The cordiall, 30; CSPV 1640–1642, 220, Ambassador Giustinian to the Doge and Senate, 27 Sep. 1641 NS; Hobbes, Leviathan, 225. See Hill, Intellectual origins, 250–1, for other English praise for ‘the example of Holland’.
20. Crewe, ‘Brave New Spain’, 77–8, quoting the paper that began ‘Por quanto Dios Nuestro Señor compasivo de nuestrros duelos inhumanos’, confiscated at Lompart's arrest.
21. Winis, Fatal history, 141, Count of Óbidos, Goa, 1653; ‘Articles of Confederation of the United Colonies of New England’, 19 May 1643; Webb, 1676, 237 n. 81 on Bacon's initiative.
22. Heiligsetzer, Der oberösterreichische Bauernkrieg, 17; ch. 8 above.
23. On Scotland's diplomatic successes, see ch. 11 above; on its failures, see Grotius, Briefwisseling, XI, 251, to Oxenstierna, 5 May 1640 (rejected appeal to Louis XIII); ibid., 329, from Charles Marini, Zurich, 4 June 1640; and Theatrum Europeaum, IV, 184–92, Andrew Ramsay to the Swiss Church, 1 April 1640 (also rejected).
24. Gilbert, Irish Confederation, VI, 233–4, Oliver French to the States-General, 5 May 1648.
25. Van Aitzema, Saken, I, 146 (alliance with Tunis and Algiers because they all ‘een machtigh vyandt hadden aen Spangien); 905 (jealousy); and 1,103 (Universal Monarchy); [Voetius], Brittish lightning, sig. B. Haan, ‘The treatment’, 39–48, discusses this pamphlet from 1643 (not 1642) – originally published in Dutch and French – and plausibly attributes it to Gisbertius Voetius. Sharpe, Personal rule, 833 n. 68 and ch. 11 above (support for the Scots).
26. See van de Haar, De diplomatieke betrekkingen, chs 2–3; and de Jong, ‘Holland’ (Dutch support for Portugal).
27. Goodwin, Anti-Cavalierisme, 5 and 50, published in October 1642 (see also ODNB, s.v. John Goodwin); Young, ‘The Scottish Parliament’, 92, quoting Instructions to Thomas Cunningham, Mar. 1645 (in Nov. 1643, the Scots Parliament also instructed its commissioners in England to seek allies abroad: ibid., 82–3); Markham, Anarchia anglicana, part ii, 49–50 (Huge Peter's sermon).
28. Haan, ‘The Treatment’, 30–1; Carrier, Labyrinthe, 80, quoting Charles de Saumaise to Jacques Dupuy, 8 Sep 1648; 83, quoting Anon., Epilogue, ou dernier appel du bon citoyen sur les misères publiques (1649); and 108–19, on Republicanism in the Mazarinades and other publications of the day.
29. Carrier, La Fronde, I, no. 16, Davant, Avis à la reine d'Angleterre et à la France (1650), 3–6; Carrier, Labyrinthe, 111–12, citing Le Ti θɛíου de la maladie de l'État (Paris, 1649); Knachel, England, 66–70; Corneille, Pertharite, Roy des Lombards, first performed in 1651.
30. Van Aitzema, Saken, III (1645–57), 323 (news arrived in The Hague on 14 Feb. 1649); Bergh, Svenska riksrådets protokoll, XIII, 17, minutes of de la Gardie's speech at the Council of State on 21 Feb. 1649 OS – thus just three weeks after the regicide. The book was Caspar Salmasius, Defensio Regia (Stockholm, 1649).
31. Berghaus, Aufnahme, 56–8; Schilfert, ‘Zur Geschichte’, 129, Chancellor Schwarzkopf of Lower Saxony in 1651 (with similar fears voiced by the Elector of Brandenburg and others at ibid., pp. 129–30); Radziwiłł, Memoriale, IV, 116–18, written in Kraków on 18 Feb. 1649; Vernadsky, Source book, I, 246, decree of 1 June 1649 OS. Robin Briggs reminds me of a parallel process in 1793: the execution of Louis XVI discredited and paralyzed radicals in other countries.
32. Bergh, Svenska riksrådets protokoll, XIII, 128, minutes of de la Gardie's speech, 10 Oct. 1651; Christina quoted in Roberts, ‘Queen Christina’, 196–7; and Grosjean, An unofficial alliance, 247 n. 42.
33. BL Addl. Ms 4,200/14–70, letters from René Augier, ‘Resident for the Parliaments of England and Scotland in Paris’, to Giles Greene in London, 1646–8; Milton, Complete prose works, VIII, 555–6, Pro populo anglicano defensio secundo, May 1654.
34. Benigno, Specchi, 98; Berghaus, Aufnahme, 92.
35. Cosnac, Souvenirs, V, 256–77, ‘Les principes, fondement et gouvernement d'une république’ and ‘Manifeste’; Carrier, Labyrinthe, 114. See also Knachel, England, 198–200, 212–13 and 267–9; Kötting, Die Ormée, 194–244 and passim; and Lutaud, Des révolutions.
36. Carrier, La Fronde, I no. 22, Anon., Les cautelles de la paix (May 1652), pp. 17–18 (‘l'empire de l'univers’). No doubt the subsequent British attack on the Dutch Republic and the ‘Western Design’ to conquer part of Spain's empire in the Caribbean confirmed the author in his opinion. No group of rebels outside Europe seems to have ‘exported revolution’ in the mid-seventeenth century like the Dutch and the English.
37. Weber, ‘The early German newspaper’ (quotation from p. 74); Behringer, Im Zeichen, 303–80 and table on 414; and Berghaus, Die Aufnahme, I, 21–2. See also chs 10 and 12 above for some French and English statistics.
38. Schmidt, Spanische Universalmonarchie, 14 (pamphlet estimate); Paas, The German Political Broadsheet, II–VII, reproduced over 2,000 items published between 1618 and 1648, several of which survive in only a single copy. Many more items are known only by name, and no doubt others still have disappeared without trace.
39. Stolp, De eerste couranten, i, Hooft letter of 24 June 1640; Carrière, Le labyrinth, 156, quoting a pamphlet by Gabriel Naudé, Mazarin's librarian; Infelise, ‘News networks’, 66–7, quoting Gregorio Leti, Dialoghi politici (Rome 1666) and Francesco Fulvio Frugoni, Del cane di Diogene (Venice 1687). I have provided my own translation of the Italian texts.
40. Firth, The Clarke papers, IV, 231, Captain Newman of the Leith garrison to Monck, 31 Dec. 1659 0S (the pamphlet was A letter of the officers of the Army of Scotland … to the officers of the Army of England). Haan, ‘The treatment’, 2, notes how ordinary men and women in the Netherlands read political works on barges and ferries, and discussed them in taverns and squares.
41. Eisenstadt and Schluter, ‘Early modernities’, 25. Jürgen Habermas, who coined the phrase in 1962, has insisted that a ‘popular public sphere emerged only in competition with the literary public sphere of the late eighteenth century’, and so the term cannot be properly applied to an earlier period. Nevertheless, from the 1640s onwards western Europe witnessed both of the intersecting processes that Habermas considered essential ingredients of the public sphere: first, ‘the communicative generation of legitimate power’; and, second, ‘the manipulative deployment of media power to procure mass loyalty, consumer demand and “compliance” with systemic imperatives’. Calhoun, Habermas, 452, 464–5 (from Habermas's response to his critics and his ‘Concluding remarks’). See also the discussion in Dooley, ‘News and doubts’; and Condren, ‘Public, private’.
42. Whitelocke, Memorials of the English affairs, 176, speech on mobilizing an army, July 1642; Raymond, The invention of the newspaper, 186, quoting Dudley, Lord North, in 1671; Neumann, Das Wort als Waffe, 1, quoting Alexandre de Ros, Cataluña desengañada (Naples, 1646).
43. Conti, Le leggei, 92–3, bando of 15 Nov. 1647. Hugon, Naples, 128–37, discusses revolutionary writings.
44. Locke, Political essays, 5, from his ‘First tract on government’, written Sep.–Dec, 1660 but never published.
45. Kagan, Students, 45; Brockliss, ‘Richelieu’, 245–6; Naudé, Considerations, 127–8; Newcastle, Advice, 20; Bremner, Children and youth, 90, quoting ‘The Report of Sir William Berkeley, Governor of Virginia, on the state of free schools, learning and the min
istry of the colony, 1671’.
46. Brinsley, Ludus literarius, 176; Molinier, A mirrour, 356–7; Bodin, The sixe bookes, 543; Hobbes, De Cive, 139 (in a section entitled ‘Causes dissolving a commonwealth’).
47. Kagan, Students, 13–14.
48. Spufford, ‘First steps’, 410, 415–17, quoting the autobiographies of Sansom and Tryon (see also ODNB s.v. Thomas Tryon).
49. Ibid., 410–11, quoting Oliver Heywood's Life of John Angier, his father-in-law and Elizabeth's mother. Donawerth, ‘Women's reading practices’, reconstructed how Mary Fell, née Askew, wrote her Women's speaking justified while in prison in 1666, including quotations she had memorized from the Bible.
50. See Johansson, ‘The History of Literacy in Sweden’. Since the state imposed no obligation to teach writing, scarcely a quarter of adult males and very few females in seventeenth-century Sweden could sign their names.
51. Hart, Geschrift en Getal, 131; Snel, The right teaching of useful knowledge, 314.
52. Cayet, Chronologie novenaire (1608), 22. Other details from Paas, Kipper and Wipper, and Bollême, La Bibliothèque bleue.
53. Carrier, La presse, 56 and 58 (quoting the complaints) and 71 (calculation of total printed Mazarinades; another 800 exist only in manuscript).
54. Pascal, Lettres provinciales (1657: trans. T. M'Crie), ‘Reply of the provincial’, 2 Feb. 1656.
55. Ezquerra Abadía, La conspiración, 12, lists those named in Pellicer's Avisos arrested for maligning the king and his policies. See Bouza, Corre manuscrito, 34–5, on the students; and 40–3 on copying plays and sermons.
56. Ettinghausen, ‘Informació’, 47, quoting Pellicer's aviso for 12 June 1640. Infelise, ‘News networks’, 55–62, describes the similar news network handled by Giovanni Quorli of Venice, 1652–68.
57. Neumann, Das Wort als Waffe, 193. On Catalan pamphlets, Ettinghausen, Guerra dels Segadors, 13–14, and Reula, ‘1640–1647’; on the Gazettes, see Ettinghausen, ‘Informació’, 54.
58. Schmidt, Spanische Universalmonarchie, 218–31 and 470–2 (list), and 371 (print).
59. Newcastle, Advice, 56 (see the ‘young statesmen’ reference on page 371 above); AUB Ms 2538/44, ‘Triennial travels’ of James Fraser. Figures from Raymond, Invention, 22–3, and Atherton, ‘The press’, 91. On ‘spin’, see Peacey, Politicians and pamphleteers. On the news-writers, see Atherton, Ambition and failure, 153–7; and Dooley and Baron, The politics, chs 2 and 9. The 1653–4 database may be consulted at http://www.ling.lancs.ac.uk/newsbooks.
60. Brook, The troubled empire, 199; Struve, Ming-Qing conflict, 8. Wong, China transformed, 112–13 and 125–6, has argued forcefully that ‘Europe's public sphere’ (which he defines as ‘an arena in which politically engaged populations could express their claims against states’) did not and could not exist in Qing China, mainly because of the lack of arenas ‘in which reason could be heard and rationality could advance’. He does not consider the freedom of debate that took place in many ‘arenas’ during the Ming-Qing transition.
61. Note, however, the claim on page 502 above by a Japanese shopkeeper that he had ‘managed to learn to read from experience’ – even though Japanese contains a multitude of characters and more than one alphabet!
62. Rawski, Education, 92. The survey covered around one-third of the counties of Ming China; Ho, Ladder, 251, quoting a 1586 prefectural gazetteer; Las Cortes, Le voyage, 191–3.
63. See the ingenious calculations in Peterson in CHC, VIII ii, 714–15. Note, however, Cynthia Brokaw's reminder that the existence of so many different Chinese characters meant that someone able to read a text on one subject fluently might struggle to read works on something different (Commerce, 560–8).
64. Chia, ‘Of Three Mountains Street’, 128. Note, however, that China's output pales in comparison with Europe: although the 38 printers of Nanjing produced some 110 works between 1621 and 1644, the 30 printers of Naples brought out 94 works in a single year (1632: Santoro, Le secentine, 41).
65. Brokaw, Commerce, 13–17. In 1639 the imperial government began to print the ‘Peking Gazette’ from movable type, but only because the content changed every day.
66. Gallagher, China, 21, quoting Mateo Ricci (Brokaw, Commerce, 513–18, confirms the cheap price of books); Ko, Teachers, 50 (quoting an editor of The peony pavilion, a popular opera).
67. Will, ‘Coming of Age’, 31, quoting Yao's ‘Record of successive years’. Yao also mentioned ‘the publication in Jiangnan of a novel on the fall of Peking only two months after the event’ (loc. cit.).
68. Brook, Confusions, 171–2, quoting Grand Secretary Yu Shenxing (1545–1608: note the similar protest of Lord Newcastle above). On dibao, see Struve, Ming-Qing conflict, 9–10, and Yin, Zhongguo (my thanks to Cynthia Brokaw for this reference).
69. Le Comte, Nouveaux mémoires, 498.
70. Wu, ‘Corpses’ 44, quoting Lu Yunlong, Wei Zhongxian xiaosho chijianshu (‘Account to condemn the villainous Wei Zhongxian’). See Kishimoto, Min shin kyōdai, ch. 4, on the lionizing of the Suzhou rioters.
71. Dardess, Blood and history, 5; Fong, ‘Writing from experience’, 257–8; Struve, The Ming-Qing conflict, 7–9 and 33–4 (citing the histories of Ji Liuqi); and idem, Ming formation, 336.
72. Ho, Ladder, 199, paraphrasing the survey of Ming Confucian thought in Huang Zongxi, Mingru xuean (1676). The 1640s also saw the beginning of a ‘Public Sphere’ in Japan, discussed in ch. 16 above.
73. Labat, Nouvelle relation, II, 151 (adding that ‘They use Arabic characters to write their own language’); Ritchie, ‘Deux textes’, 323–4, from Chambonneau's Traité de l'origine des nègres (1678).
74. Subrahmanyam, ‘Hearing voices’, 94–5; Ludden, Peasant history, 8.
75. Çelebi, Balance, 11, 143–4: the Kashf al-zunā. Professor Gottfried Hagen informs me that although not all copies date from the seventeenth century, this represents a substantial total for a work not prescribed for medrese study.
76. See Hering, Ökumenisches Patriarchat, and Trevor-Roper, ‘The church of England’. Catholic missionaries also imported religious texts in Greek into the Ottoman empire, but the sultan would not allow them to be printed there.
77. See Hacker, ‘The intellectual activities’. On Manasseh and his work, see ch. 7 above.
78. Evliyā Çelebi, Seyahatname [Book of travels]. (Since in Turkish Evliyā means ‘Government Official’ and Çelebi means ‘Gentleman’, this may have been a pseudonym.)
79. Terzioğlu, Sufi and dissident, 328–9, notes the ‘Jewish’ slur against Ibrahim; 346–53, on the Crimean option (Mīşri met Crimean princes while exiled on the same island); and 464–90, on the Mīşri Order and other legacies.
80. Ibid., 41, quoting Çelebi; Hathaway ‘The Grand Vizier’, 669 (the text was Birgeli Mehmet Efendi's Risāle, which had inspired Kadizade Mehmet)
81. Scholem, Sabbatai, 937–9, lists editions of the Sefer Tiqqun ha-Laylah and Sefer Seder Tiqqun ha-Yom, starting with the two Istanbul editions of 1666.
82. Scholem, Sabbatai, 604, quoting an Armenian living in Istanbul at the time. A single example: the father-in-law of Glückel of Hameln sold everything he owned to buy provisions for the journey from Hamburg to Israel: Lowenthal, The Memoirs of Glückel of Hameln, 46–7.
83. Scholem, Sabbatai, 549, quoting Mather.
84. This paragraph draws on the doctoral research of Benzion Chinn at the Ohio State University. I am most grateful to him for sharing it with me.
85. Different sources give different numbers for Masaniello's ‘ragazzi’: Graniti, Diario, 15, and Donzelli, Partenope, 7–8, both stated that he had eight companions, aged between 23 and 25; while Filomarino suggested that Masaniello commanded 25–30 boys aged 15 or less (Palermo, Narrazioni, 385, Filomarino to Innocent X, 12 July 1647). Giraffi later wrote that Masaniello trained at first 500 and eventually 2,000 boys specifically to mount a protest against the excise (Howell, Exact history, 11–12).
86. AMAE (P), CPA 54/101–7, M. de Bellièvre to Secretary o
f State Brienne, 31 Dec. 1646.
Part V. Beyond the Crisis
1. Special thanks to Derek Croxton, Kate Epstein, Jack Goldstone, Daniel Headrick, Paul Monod, Sheilagh Ogilvie and Kenneth Pomeranz for help in framing the final chapters of this book.
2. For two representative series that show the 1690s as the coldest on record see Brázdil et al., ‘Use’, fig. 2 (Germany since 1000); and Dobrovolný et al., ‘Monthly’, 93 (central Europe 1500–2007). See also Manley, ‘Central England temperatures’, 402 (data 1659–1973); and Xoplaki et al., ‘Variability’, 600–1.
3. Garnier, Les dérangements, 141–8, and figs 22–24, present the most recent round-up of west European data on ‘the Great Winter’. For the experience of the Balkans, see Xoplaki et al., ‘Variability’, 598. Gabriele Bella's painting The Frozen Lagoon in 1708 portrayed the Venetian skaters.
4. Shindel, ‘Volcanic and solar forcing’, 4,104, ‘GCM simulation 1680 vs 1780 solar + volcano’; Luterbacher et al., ‘European seasonal and annual temperature’, 1,501–2; idem, ‘Monthly mean pressure’, 1,050, 1,062; Pfister, ‘Weeping in the snow’ 54, displays two weather maps reconstructing the unusual cold in 1695. http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/find_eruptions.cfm lists eruptions by year; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Volcanic-ash-downfall_map_of_Mt.Fuji_Hoei-eruption01.jpg reconstructs the ash falls from Mount Fuji's ‘Hōei eruption’ in 1707–8.
5. Data from Teodoreanu, ‘Preliminary observations’, 189, quoting a Turkish chronicler; García Acosta, Desastres agrícolas, I, 203–14; Myllyntaus, ‘Summer frost’, 82. See also Xoplaki et al., ‘Variability’, 596–604.
6. Nicolas, La rébellion, 232–4, quoting the intendants of Limoges and Moulins; Lachiver, Les années de misère, ch. 8; and Le Roy Ladurie, Les fluctuations, 105–12, 114–15, 300–1. See also chs 4 and 10 above (on ‘stunting’) and ch. 12 (on Britain's weather).
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