20. RAFM, Bottomley papers, AC 71/2/29, Note by the Air Staff for War Cabinet Inter-Service Committee on Chemical Warfare, 23 Jan 1944, Annex 1.
21. TNA, PREM 3/79/1, Churchill to Roosevelt, 11 Feb 1944 and 12 Feb 1944.
22. Ibid., Roosevelt to Churchill, 12 Feb 1944.
23. Ibid., Lord Killearn (Cairo) to the Foreign Office, 24 Feb 1944; Lord Killearn to the Foreign Office, 24 Feb 1944, encl. report from Mr Howard, 1–3; Crampton, Bulgaria, 275–6.
24. TNA, PREM 3/79/1, Eden to Churchill, 3 Mar 1944, 1–3, 8.
25. Ibid., Portal to Churchill, 10 Mar 1944.
26. Rumenin, Letyashti Kreposti, 125; AFHRA, 519.12535, Fifteenth Air Force Operations (Bulgaria), Nov 1943–July 1944.
27. Miller, Bulgaria, 168–80.
28. FDRL, Map Room files, Box 136, CoS to Wilson and General Carl Spaatz, 25 Mar 1944; TNA, PREM 3/66/10, Portal to Wilson and Spaatz, 28 Mar 1944; Portal to Wilson and Spaatz, 11 Apr 1944.
29. TNA, PREM 3/66/10, Joint Staff Mission, Washington, DC, 21 July 1944, 1–2; CoS memorandum, 25 July 1944.
30. TNA, PREM 3/79/5, War Cabinet minute by Anthony Eden, ‘Bulgaria’, 17 Mar 1945.
31. Percy Schramm (ed), Kriegstagebuch des OKW: Eine Dokumentation: 1943, Band 3, Teilband 2 (Augsburg: 2007), 1,089.
32. Michael M. Boll (ed), The American Military Mission in the Allied Control Commission for Bulgaria 1944–1947 (New York: 1985), 38–42.
33. Peter Donnelly (ed), Mrs. Milburn’s Diaries: An Englishwoman’s Day-to-Day Reflections 1939–1945 (London: 1979), 100, entry for 14 June 1941.
34. TNA, PREM 3/79/1, note by Churchill on telegram Tedder (MAAF) to Churchill, 29 Dec 1943; note by Churchill on letter from Lord Killearn to the Foreign Office, 9 Mar 1944.
35. TNA, PREM 3/66/10, JSM Report, 21 July 1944, 1.
36. TsAMO f.500, 0.725168d.319, Luftwaffe Generalstab, ‘Luftwehrgeographische Beschreibung von Grossbritannien 1938’, edn of 6 Mar 1940.
37. Haywood Hansell, The Air Plan that Defeated Hitler (Atlanta: 1972), 81–3.
38. TNA, PREM 3/79/1, telegram from British CoS to JSM, Washington, DC, 20 Oct 1943.
39. CamUL, Baldwin papers, vol 1, Londonderry to Baldwin, 17 July 1934.
40. Vera Brittain, England’s Hour (London: 2005), xiv (first publ. 1941).
41. TNA, AIR 40/288 Air Intelligence (Liaison), ‘The Blitz’, 14 Aug 1941, App A, ‘Morale’, 1.
42. On this see Peter Gray, ‘The Gloves Will Have to Come Off: A Reappraisal of the Legitimacy of the RAF Bomber Offensive against Germany’, Air Power Review, 13 (2010), 9–40.
43. There is now a very large literature on these issues. See, e.g., Anthony Grayling, Among the Dead Cities: Was the Allied Bombing of Civilians in World War II a Necessity or a Crime? (London: 2005); Jörg Friedrich, Der Brand: Deutschland im Bombenkrieg 1940–1945 (Munich: 2002); Nicholson Baker, Human Smoke: The Beginnings of World War II and the End of Civilization (New York: 2008); Stephen A. Garrett, Ethics and Airpower in World War II: The British Bombing of German Cities (New York: 1993); Beau Grosscup, Strategic Terror: The Politics and Ethics of Aerial Bombardment (London: 2006); Igor Primoratz (ed), Terror from the Sky: The Bombing of German Cities in World War II (Oxford: 2010).
44. LC, Eaker papers, Box I.30, Intelligence section, MAAF, ‘What is Germany Saying?’ [n.d. but early 1945].
45. See the excellent essays in Yuki Tanaka, Marilyn Young (eds), Bombing Civilians: A Twentieth-Century History (New York: 2009).
1. BOMBING BEFORE 1940: IMAGINED AND REAL
1. Lewis Mumford, The Culture of Cities (New York: 1938), 274–5, 292.
2. H. G. Wells, The War in the Air (London: 1908), 207, 349. Susan Grayzel, ‘ “A Promise of Terror to Come”: Air Power and the Destruction of Cities in British Imagination and Experience, 1908–39’, in Stefan Goebel, Derek Keene (eds), Cities into Battlefields: Metropolitan Scenarios, Experiences and Commemorations of Total War (Farnham: 2011), 48–51.
3. Kirk Willis, ‘The Origins of British Nuclear Culture, 1895–1939’, Journal of British Studies, 34 (1995), 70–71.
4. Wells, War in the Air, 349.
5. Douglas H. Robinson, The Zeppelin in Combat: A History of the German Naval Airship Division (London: 1962), 345–51; Joseph Morris, The German Air Raids on Great Britain, 1914–1918 (London: 1925), 265–72; Colin Dobinson, AA Command: Britain’s Anti-Aircraft Defences of World War II (London: 2001), 21–2.
6. Raymond H. Fredette, The Sky on Fire: The First Battle of Britain, 1917–1918, and the Birth of the Royal Air Force (Washington, DC: 1991), 14–40, 160–72. Frank Morison (pseud. of Albert Henry Ross), War on Great Cities: A Study of the Facts (London: 1938), 180.
7. Dobinson, AA Command, 32.
8. Ian Patterson, Guernica and Total War (London: 2007), 87–8.
9. Grayzel, ‘ “A Promise of Terror to Come” ’, 51–2.
10. See John Sweetman, ‘The Smuts Report of 1917: Merely Political Window Dressing?’, Journal of Strategic Studies, 4 (1981), 152–6, 164–6; Matthew Cooper, ‘A House Divided: Policy, Rivalry and Administration in Britain’s Military Air Command’, Journal of Strategic Studies, 3 (1980), 178–201.
11. TNA, AIR 1/462, Lord Tiverton to Air Board, 3 Sept 1917; AIR 1/463, memorandum for the Supreme War Council, ‘Bombing Operations’, Jan 1918.
12. CCAC, Lord Weir papers, WEIR 1/2, Sir Henry Norman to Lord Weir (Air Minister), 25 Mar 1918.
13. Edward Westermann, Flak: German Anti-Aircraft Defenses, 1914–1945 (Lawrence, KS: 2001), 18–27.
14. Air Ministry, Cmd. 100, ‘Synopsis of British Air Effort during the War’, Apr 1919, 5–6.
15. TNA, AIR 9/8, chief of the air staff, ‘Review of the Air Situation and Strategy for the Information of the Imperial War Cabinet’, 27 June 1918; AIR 1/460, War Office D. F.O., ‘Strategic Bombing Objectives in Order of Importance’ [n.d. but autumn 1917]; Frederick Sykes, From Many Angles: An Auto-Biography (London: 1943), 224–30.
16. Peter Nath, Luftkriegsoperationen gegen die Stadt Offenburg im Ersten und Zweiten Weltkrieg (Offenburg: 1990), 585–92.
17. Alan Morris, First of the Many: The Story of Independent Force, RAF (London: 1968), App A; Air Ministry, Cmd. 100, 6 ‘Synopsis of British Air Effort’ United States Bombing Survey: Narrative Summary, in M. Maurer (ed), The U.S. Air Service in World War I: Vol 4 (Washington, DC: 1978), 500–502.
18. TNA, AIR 8/179, interview with Lord Trenchard on the Independent Force, 11 Apr 1934; AIR 1/460, Lt. General Groves, ‘I.F. R.A.F. Policy’, 11 Sept 1918; Sykes, From Many Angles, 555–8.
19. TNA, AIR 1/2104, British Bombing Commission Report; AIR 9/6, ‘The Operation of the Independent Air Force’, 12; United States Bombing Survey in Maurer, U.S. Air Service: Vol 4, 495–503.
20. TNA, AIR 9/8, War Office staff exercise, address by the chief of the air staff, 3. See too Tami Davis Biddle, Rhetoric and Reality in Air Warfare: The Evolution of British and American Ideas about Strategic Bombing, 1914–1945 (Princeton, NJ: 2002), 78–80.
21. Giulio Douhet, The Command of the Air, trans. Dino Ferrari (Washington, DC: 1983), 181. Reprinted from 1942.
22. Ibid., 187.
23. Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson, War: Its Nature, Cause and Cure (London: 1923), 12–13.
24. Neville Jones, The Beginnings of Strategic Air Power: A History of the British Bomber Force 1923–1929 (London: 1987), 37–40.
25. Cited in Roxanne Panchasi, Future Tense: The Culture of Anticipation in France between the Wars (Ithaca, NY: 2009), 94–6.
26. ‘The War of 19–’, reproduced in Douhet, The Command of the Air, 392–3.
27. Morison, War on Great Cities, 183, 194, 203.
28. Tom Wintringham, The Coming World War (London: 1935), 38–9.
29. See e.g. Josef Konvitz, ‘Représentations urbaines et bombardements stratégiques, 1914–1945’, Annales (1989), 825–8; Stefan Goebel, Derek Keene, ‘Towards a Metropolitan History of Total War: An Introduction’, in Goebel and Keene, Cities into Battlefields, 6�
�11, 22–3.
30. H. Montgomery Hyde, G. R. Falkiner Nuttall, Air Defence and the Civil Population (London: 1937), 52–3.
31. CamUL, Needham papers, K31, review of The Protection of the Public from Aerial Attack, 20 Feb 1937.
32. Cited in Patterson, Guernica and Total War, 110.
33. Eric Lehmann, Le ali del potere: La propaganda aeronautica nell’Italia fascista (Turin: 2010); Scott W. Palmer, Dictatorship of the Air: Aviation Culture and the Fate of Modern Russia (Cambridge: 2006); Peter Fritzsche, A Nation of Flyers: German Aviation and the Popular Imagination (Cambridge, MA: 1992), ch 5.
34. Cited in Jones, Beginnings of Strategic Air Power, 41, House of Lords speech, 11 July 1928.
35. CCAC, Noel-Baker papers, 8/19, notes for a lecture, 6 Feb 1934.
36. E. Stengel, ‘Air-Raid Phobia’, The British Journal of Medical Psychology, 20 (1944–6), 135–43; P. E. Vernon, ‘Psychological Effects of Air-Raids’, The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 36 (1941), 457–61.
37. Brett Holman, ‘The Air Panic of 1935: British Press Opinion between Disarmament and Rearmament’, Journal of Contemporary History, 46 (2011), 288–307; Martin Hugh-Jones, ‘Wickham Steed and German Biological Warfare Research’, Intelligence and National Security, 7 (1992), 387–90.
38. CamUL, Needham papers, G57, rough notes ‘Can Sci[ence] Save Civilisation?’
39. New Fabian Research Bureau, The Road to War, Being an Analysis of the National Government’s Foreign Policy (London: 1937), 177–8.
40. Gerald Lee, ‘ “I See Dead People”: Air-Raid Phobia and Britain’s Behaviour in the Munich Crisis’, Security Studies, 13 (2003/4), 230–72.
41. Joel Hayward, ‘Air Power, Ethics, and Civilian Immunity during the First World War and its Aftermath’, Global War Studies, 7 (2010), 107–8.
42. Ibid., 127–8. See too Heinz Hanke, Luftkrieg und Zivilbevölkerung (Frankfurt am Main: 1991), 71–7.
43. J. Wheeler-Bennett (ed), Documents on International Affairs: 1932 (Oxford: 1933), 217–27, ‘Memorandum by the French Delegation, 14 November 1932’; Philip Meilinger, ‘Clipping the Bomber’s Wings: The Geneva Disarmament Conference and the Royal Air Force 1932–1934’, War in History, 6 (1999), 311–21; Thomas Davies, ‘France and the World Disarmament Conference of 1932–1934’, Diplomacy & Statecraft, 15 (2004), 772–3; Waqar Zaidi, ‘ “Aviation Will Either Destroy or Save Our Civilization”: Proposals for the International Control of Aviation, 1920–45’, Journal of Contemporary History, 46 (2011), 155–9.
44. Hanke, Luftkrieg und Zivilbevölkerung, 90.
45. Documents on International Affairs: 1933 (Oxford: 1934), 173–7, ‘British Draft Disarmament Convention, 16 March 1933: Article 34’. Carolyn Kitching, Britain and the Geneva Disarmament Conference: A Study in International History (Basingstoke: 2003), 59–60, 124–5; Dick Richardson, Carolyn Kitching, ‘Britain and the World Disarmament Conference’, in Peter Catterall, C. J. Morris (eds), Britain and the Threat to Stability in Europe 1918–1945 (Leicester: 1993), 38–41, 47–9.
46. Davies, ‘France and World Disarmament’, 771–2; Hanke, Luftkrieg und Zivilbevölkerung, 93–8.
47. Philip Noel-Baker, ‘International Air Police Force’, in Storm Jameson (ed), Challenge to Death (London: 1934), 206–9, 231; CCAC, Noel-Baker papers, 4/497, ‘Proposals for the Abolition of National Air Forces’, 1 Nov 1934; Brett Holman, ‘World Police for World Peace: British Internationalism and the Threat of the Knock-Out Blow from the Air, 1919–1945’, War in History, 17 (2010), 319–21; Michael Pugh, ‘An International Police Force: Lord Davies and the British Debate in the 1930s’, International Relations, 9 (1988), 335–51;
48. Documents on German Foreign Policy: Series C: Vol 5 (London: 1966), 355–63, ‘Peace Plan of the German Government of March 31 1936’; Documents on British Foreign Policy: Second Series: Vol VXI (London: 1977), 262–4, Eden to Sir Eric Phipps (Paris), 2 Apr 1936; 268–70, Eden to Phipps, 2 Apr 1936.
49. Documents on German Foreign Policy: Series C: Vol 5 369–72, memorandum of the German Delegation to London, 2 Apr 1936.
50. Hanke, Luftkrieg und Zivilbevölkerung, 100–101.
51. ‘How Nearly Twelve Million Voted’, Headway, 17 (1935), 131. Martin Ceadel, ‘The First British Referendum: The Peace Ballot 1934–35’, English Historical Review, 95 (1980), 818–21, 828–9; Richard Overy, The Morbid Age: Britain and the Crisis of Civilization between the Wars (London: 2009), 229–35.
52. Nicholas Rankin, Telegram from Guernica: The Extraordinary Life of George Steer, War Correspondent (London: 2003), 53.
53. Angelo Del Boca, I gas di Mussolini (Rome: 1996), 76–7, 139–41, 148.
54. See Klaus Maier, Guernica 26.4.1937: Die deutsche Intervention in Spanien und der ‘Fall Guernica’ (Freiburg: 1975), 55–8.
55. Paul Preston, We Saw Spain Die: Foreign Correspondents in the Spanish Civil War (London: 2008), 263–4, 275–6.
56. CamUL, Needham papers, K102, Communist Party of Great Britain, ‘The Decisive Hour’, 2; Patterson, Guernica and Total War, 69.
57. Robert Stradling, Your Children Will be Next: Bombing and Propaganda in the Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939 (Cardiff: 2008), 219.
58. Rankin, Telegram from Guernica, 128–9; CamUL, For Intellectual Freedom papers, A4, FIL statement, 31 Mar 1938.
59. Parliamentary Debates, Hansard, Ser 5, vol 270, col 632, 10 Nov 1932.
60. Susan Grayzel, At Home and Under Fire: Air Raids and Culture in Britain from the Great War to the Blitz (Cambridge: 2012), 124–5, 130–31.
61. Alfredo Savelli, Offesa aerea: mezzi di difesa e protezione (Milan: 1936), 85–104.
62. Richard Overy, ‘Apocalyptic Fears: Bombing and Popular Anxiety in Inter-War Britain’, S-NODI: pubblici e private nella storia contemporanea, 2 (Spring 2008), 20–21.
63. Claudia Baldoli, Andrew Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes: France and Italy under Allied Air Attack, 1940–1945 (London: 2012), 62–3.
64. Julia Torrie, ‘For Their Own Good’: Civilian Evacuations in Germany and France, 1939–1945 (New York: 2010), 25–7. On the social body see Panchasi, Future Tense, 100–107.
65. Torrie, ‘For Their Own Good’, 27–30; Bernd Lemke, Luftschutz in Grossbritannien und Deutschland 1923 bis 1939 (Munich: 2005), 327–9.
66. Baldoli and Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 63–4; Terence O’Brien, Civil Defence (London: 1955), 329–30; RGVA, f.37878, o.1, d. 722, ‘Anti-Chemical Defence during the War’, 3 July 1945.
67. Lara Feigel, The Love-Charm of Bombs (London: 2013), 36.
68. Lemke, Luftschutz, 329–30.
69. ‘Anti Air-Raid-Drill’, The War Resister, Feb 1934, 6–8; FHL, No More War Movement papers, MSS 579/2, National Committee meeting, 1 June 1935; LSE, National Peace Council papers, 16/9, J. D. Bernal, ‘Air Raid Precautions’, Peace, Jan 1938, 152–3.
70. Joseph Meisel, ‘Air Raid Shelter Policy and its Critics before the Second World War’, Twentieth Century British History, 5 (1994), 307–12.
71. WMRC, Gollancz papers, 157/3/M, Towndrow to Victor Gollancz, October 1938.
72. Montgomery Hyde, Air Defence and the Civil Population, 216–24.
73. M. Cluet, L’Architecture du IIIe Reich: Origines intellectuelles et visées idéologiques (Bern: 1987), 201–4; C. W. Glover, Civil Defence (London: 1938), 692–3.
74. Glover, Civil Defence, 690, 694.
75. Helmut Klotz, Militärische Lehren des Burgerkrieges in Spanien (1937), 52.
76. NARA, RG 165/888.96, memorandum by Gen. Embick, War Plans Divisions, 6 Dec 1935, 3.
77. J. Truelle, ‘La production aéronautique militaire française jusqu’en Juin 1940’, Revue d’histoire de la Deuxième Guerre Mondiale, 19 (1969), 97; Pierre Cot, Triumph of Treason (Chicago, IL: 1944), 282–6, 330–35.
78. TNA, AIR 9/77, Draft Air Staff requirement, Specification B19/38.
79. Ferruccio Botti, ‘Amadeo Mecozzi’, in Actes du colloque international, ‘Précurseurs et prophètes de l’aviation militaire’ (Paris: 1992), 134–9; James C
orum, ‘Airpower Thought in Continental Europe between the Wars’, in Philip Meilinger (ed), The Paths to Heaven: The Evolution of Airpower Theory (Maxwell AFB, AL: 1997), 160–61.
80. ‘Rougeron’s Aviation de Bombardement: Part II’, Royal Air Force Quarterly, 10 (1939), 39–44; on French First World War experience see P. Bernard, ‘A propos de la stratégie aérienne pendant la Première Guerre Mondiale: Mythes et realités’, Revue d’Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine, 16 (1969), 357–61.
81. Cot, Triumph of Treason, 274–5; Robert Young, ‘The Strategic Dream: French Air Doctrine in the Inter-War Period, 1919–1939’, Journal of Contemporary History, 9 (1974), 58–9, 66–7; P. le Goyet, ‘Evolution de la doctrine d’emploi de l’aviation française entre 1919 et 1939’, Revue d’Histoire de la Deuxième Guerre Mondiale, 19 (1969), 22–3. Robin Higham, Two Roads to War: The French and British Air Arms from Versailles to Dunkirk (Annapolis, MD: 2012), 136–7.
82. K. R. Whiting, ‘Soviet Aviation and Air Power under Stalin, 1928–1941’, in Robin Higham, Jacob Kipp (eds), Soviet Aviation and Air Power: A Historical View (London: 1978), 50–63; J. T. Greenwood and Von Hardesty, ‘Soviet Air Forces in World War II’, in Paul Murphy (ed), The Soviet Air Forces (Jefferson, NC: 1984), 35–9; Alexander Boyd, The Soviet Air Force since 1918 (London: 1977), 56–8.
83. James Corum, ‘From Biplanes to Blitzkrieg: The Development of German Air Doctrine between the Wars’, War in History, 3 (1996), 87–9.
84. Ibid., 97; Westermann, Flak, 40–46.
85. ‘Beitrag zur Wehrmachtstudie, 18 Nov 1935’, in Karl-Heinz Völker, Dokumente und Dokumentarfotos zur Geschichte der Deutschen Luftwaffe (Stuttgart: 1968), 445–6; E. M. Emme, ‘Technical Change and Western Military Thought, 1914–45’, Military Affairs, 24 (1960), 15.
86. ‘Luftwaffendienstschrift “Luftkriegführung” ’, in Völker, Dokumente und Dokumentarfotos, 479–82.
87. Westermann, Flak, 54–5, 58–9.
88. Corum, ‘From Biplanes to Blitzkrieg’, 97–8; a different view in Klaus Maier, ‘Total War and German Air Doctrine before the Second World War’, in Wilhelm Deist (ed), The German Military in the Age of Total War (Oxford: 1985), 214–15.
The Bombing War: Europe 1939–1945 Page 93