263. NARA, RG107, Box 139, HQ Army Service Forces for Lovett, ‘United States Chemical Warfare Committee: Periodic Report of Readiness for Chemical Warfare as of January 1 1945’, 114–15.
264. AFHRA, Disc MAAF 230, Brig. Gen. Cabell (Operations) to Eaker, ‘Employment of Chemical Weapons by the Allied Air Forces’, 12 Aug 1944; Operational Memorandum, ‘Chemical Warfare – Policy for Offensive Action’, 11 Aug 1944.
265. Coccoli, ‘I “fortilizi inespugnabili della civiltà italiana” ’, 414; Marta Nezzo, ‘La protezione delle città d’arte’, in Labanca (ed), I bombardamenti aerei, 202.
266. Nezzo, ‘La protezione della città d’arte’, 205–6; Nezzo, ‘The Defence of Works of Art’, 112–13.
267. Coccoli, ‘I “fortilizi inespugnabili della civiltà italiana”, 415; Nezzo, ‘La protezione della città d’arte’, 202–3.
268. Lynn Nicholas, The Rape of Europa: The Fate of Europe’s Treasures in the Third Reich and the Second World War (London: 1994), 260.
269. Baldoli, Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 228–9.
270. Ibid., 236–8.
271. TNA, AIR 8/777, Osborne to the Foreign Office, 22 Mar 1944; Baldoli, Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 238–9.
272. Chianese, ‘Quando uscimmo dai rifugi’, 41, for figure on Sicily.
273. ISTAT, Morti e disperse per cause belliche negli anni 1940–45 (Rome: 1957), Table 2.8. For a discussion of the problems of assessing wartime casualties see Baldoli, Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, App, 260–62.
274. ACS, Ministero dell’Interno, Busta 22, Railway Commissariat, Palermo to Interior Ministry, 1 Apr 1943; TNA, FO 898/496, PWE, ‘Foglio volante’, 5 July 1943.
9. BOMBING FRIENDS, BOMBING ENEMIES: GERMANY’S NEW ORDER
1. Target: Germany. The U.S Army Air Forces’ Official Story of the VIII Bomber Command’s First Year over Europe (London: 1944).
2. USSBS, ‘Over-All Report (European Theatre)’, Washington, DC, 30 Sept 1945, 2. The figures are France 21.8%, Other 7.5%, Austria, Hungary, Balkans 6.7%.
3. TNA, FO 898/313, memorandum by Ritchie Calder, PWE, ‘Bombing (military, economic and morale objectives)’, 1–5.
4. TNA, AIR 19/217, War Cabinet, 24 July 1940, memorandum by the Air Minister, ‘Bombardment Policy in France’.
5. TNA, AIR 20/5831, AI to Air Ministry (Plans), 17 Aug 1940, encl. ‘Fringe Targets: Norway, Denmark, Holland, Belgium and France’.
6. TNA, AIR 20/5831, AI to Air Ministry (Plans), 20 Aug 1940 ‘France: Targets within 30 Miles of Coast Dunkirk – Bordeaux’; 13 Feb 1941, ‘France: Fringe Targets within 30 miles of the Coast of Occupied France’; 6 Feb 1941, ‘Belgium: Fringe Targets from North to South’ (included three rated three-star); ‘Norway: Industrial Fringe Targets from North to South’ (seven marked three-star).
7. Ibid., Air Marshal Leigh-Mallory to AI (AI9), 1 July 1941.
8. Ibid., ‘Information received from Lt. Commander Molenburg’, 7 Aug 1940.
9. TNA, FO 371/28541, British Embassy, Bern to French Department (FO), 31 July 1941.
10. TNA, FO 898/312, Mr. Harman (FO) to Air Commodore Groves (PWE), 14 Feb 1942; Mr. Harman to Brigadier Brookes (PWE), 18 Feb 1942; PWE, ‘Extrait du journal clandestin belge “Le Peuple” du mois d’avril 1942’.
11. Joris van Esch, ‘Restrained Policy and Careless Execution: Allied Strategic Bombing on the Netherlands in the Second World War’, School of Advanced Military Studies, Fort Leavenworth, KS (2011), 18–19.
12. TNA, AIR 40/1720, Report from Military Intelligence Division, G2, MAAF, 30 May 1944, on ‘Centre de documentation des services speciaux’, Annex 1, ‘Comparative Table of Bombing in France since 1940’ (based on Bulletin de Securité Militaire, Direction Technique des Services Speciaux, 21 May 1944).
13. TNA, FO 371/28541, French department, FO, to W. Mackenzie (Air Ministry), 15 May 1941; FO to Mackenzie, 31 May 1941; W. Law (MoL) to FO, 7 May 1941.
14. TNA, AIR 2/7503, Samuel Hoare (British ambassador to Spain) to the FO, 27 Sept 1941, encl. ‘Note verbale’ from Le Havre Municipal Council; FO 371/28541, Hoare to FO, 19 Aug 1941, encl. ‘Note verbale’ from the French Embassy in Madrid. See too Claudia Baldoli, Andrew Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes: France and Italy under Allied Air Attack, 1940–1945 (London: 2012), 35.
15. TNA, FO 371/28541, Air Vice Marshal Medhurst to Mack (FO), 17 Oct 1941; AIR 2/7503, Minute by DBOps for FO, 25 Oct 1941.
16. For a full account of German exploitation in 1940–41 see Hein Klemann, Sergei Kudryashov, Occupied Economies: An Economic History of Nazi-Occupied Europe, 1939–1945 (London: 2012), 75–88.
17. TNA, FO 371/28541, War Cabinet paper, ‘Air Policy – Attack on Factories in Occupied France’, 6 Nov 1941; AIR 19/217, War Cabinet conclusions, 20 Oct 1941. On RAF restrictions on bombing Paris, CCO, Portal papers, Folder 2/File 1, Portal to Churchill, 7 Sept 1941.
18. Michael Stenton, Radio London and Resistance in Occupied Europe: British Political Warfare 1939–1943 (Oxford: 2000), 13, 88; Ben Pimlott, Hugh Dalton (London: 1985), 331–5, 343.
19. Stenton, Radio London and Resistance, 100.
20. CCO, Portal papers, Folder 9/File 3, AI, ‘Air Activity over Norway’, 24 Apr 1942.
21. TNA, FO 898/313, Ritchie Calder, ‘Notes for Morale Bombing’, 18 Aug 1941; Calder to Reginald Leeper, ‘RAF and Morale-Making in Occupied Countries’, 25 Aug 1941, 1–2; Calder memorandum, ‘Bombing (military, economic and morale objectives)’, Mar 1942, 1, 4–5.
22. TNA, FO 898/437, PWE memorandum, ‘Why Drop Nickels?’, Sept 1943, 1.
23. Ibid., 4.
24. TNA, FO 898/319, PWE Report, 14 Apr 1942.
25. TNA, FO 898/319, Directive for BBC European Service, ‘Plan for Propaganda (Occupied Countries) to Accompany RAF Attacks’, Mar 1942.
26. TNA, FO 898/234, T. G. Harman to Leeper (PWE), ‘Plan for Propaganda to Belgium’, 26 Feb 1941; Report on an interview with mademoiselle Depuich [Oct 1941], 2; ‘Plan of Propaganda to Holland’, 6.
27. TNA, AIR 19/217, paper from the Air Ministry (Plans) for the War Cabinet, 11 Nov 1941; Director of Plans (Air Ministry) to Churchill, 8 Jan 1942; Norman Bottomley to Acting C-in-C, Bomber Command, 5 Feb 1942; FO 371/28541, War Cabinet, 6 Nov 1941; FO 371/31999, Attlee to Churchill, 8 Jan 1942.
28. TNA, AIR 20/4768, Directorate of Bombing, ‘Incendiary Attacks in Occupied Countries’, 13 Nov 1941.
29. RAFM, Harris papers, H47, Bottomley to Harris, ‘Psychological Aspects of Bombing Policy’, 14 Apr 1942.
30. TNA, FO 898/313, PWE, ‘Progress Report No. 1’, Mar 1942.
31. TNA, AIR 19/217, Baker to Bottomley, 4 Mar 1942; casualty figures from Matt Perry, ‘Bombing Billancourt: Labour Agency and the Limitations of the Public Opinion Model of Wartime France’, Labour History Review, 77 (2012), 49, and Service Historique de l’Armeé de l’Air (SHAA), Vincennes, Paris, 3D/48/Dossier 2, Direction de Défense Passive, Bulletin de Renseignements, 30 Mar 1942.
32. SHAA, 3D/112/Dossier 3, propagande anglo-saxonne, ‘Aux populations de la France occupée’; TNA, FO 898/319, P. C. Groves (PWE) to the BBC, 6 Feb 1942.
33. Ibid., memorandum by I. Black (PWE), ‘The Bombardment of Paris Factories’, 5 Mar 1942.
34. Ibid., US Embassy London to Sinclair, encl. message from Admiral Leahy, 13 Mar 1942; Eden to Sinclair, 16 Mar 1942.
35. Perry, ‘Bombing Billancourt’, 61–2.
36. TNA, FO 898/319, PWE Report, ‘The Bombing of French Factories’, 10 Apr 1942; PWE Report, ‘Evidence of Effect of RAF Bombing on Morale in Enemy-Occupied Territories’, 14 Apr 1942, 3.
37. TNA, AIR 19/217, Sir Samuel Hoare (Madrid) to FO, 9 June 1942; US Embassy Berne to Secretary of State, 22 June 1942.
38. Lindsey Dodd, Andew Knapp, ‘ “How Many Frenchmen Did You Kill?”: British Bombing Policy Towards France (1940–1945)’, French History, 22 (2008), 474–80.
39. Simon Kitson, ‘Criminals or Liberators? French Public Opinion and the Allied Bombings of France, 1940–1945’, in Claudia Baldoli, Andrew Knapp, Richard Overy (eds), Bombing, Stat
es and Peoples in Western Europe, 1940–1945 (London: 2011), 279–84.
40. TNA, AIR 8/428, Harris to Portal, 7 Apr 1942: ‘Real Blitzes as Opposed to Dock Bombing’.
41. TNA, AIR 9/187, Slessor to all air commands, ‘Bombardment Policy’, 29 Oct 1942.
42. TNA, AIR 19/217, Bottomley to Harris, 14 Jan 1943; Baldoli, Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 25–6; Dodd, Knapp, ‘ “How Many Frenchmen Did You Kill?” ’, 479–80.
43. Arthur T. Harris, Bomber Offensive (London: 1947), 136–7.
44. TNA, ADM 199/2467, Naval Intelligence Division (NID) to Assistant Chief of Naval Staff, ‘U/Boat Bases – West Coast of France’, 13 Jan 1943; HQ Eighth Bomber Command to NID, 18 Feb 1943.
45. TNA, FO 898/319, PWE minute, ‘Campaign to the French Coastal Populations’, 1 June 1942; Peck to Baker, enclosing leaflet, ‘Aux ouvriers français des ports de l’ouest’, June 1942.
46. TNA, ADM 199/2467, NID Report, ‘The Bombing of the U-Boat Bases’, 11 Mar 1943; NID, ‘Factual Statement on the Lorient Base and on Bombing Attacks’.
47. SHAA, 3D/322/Dossier 1, Air Force Report, ‘Bombardement de l’Arsenal et de la ville de Lorient, Janvier–Mars 1943’, 6–7, 9.
48. TNA, FO 898/319, PWE, draft statement on the bombing of Lorient; Air Ministry (VCAS) to PWE, 23 Feb 1943.
49. TNA, ADM 199/2467, NID note, ‘Lorient’; AIR 19/218, Bottomley to Harris, 6 Apr 1943. See too Charles Webster, Noble Frankland, The Strategic Air Offensive Against Germany, 4 vols (London: 1961), vol 2, 96–7.
50. Stephen Flower, Barnes Wallis’ Bombs: Tallboy, Dambuster and Grand Slam (Stroud: 2002), 124–5, 189–90, 192–5, 412.
51. TNA, ADM 199/2467, NID, French division, ‘France: Reaction to the Paris and Anvers Raids’, 18 Apr 1943.
52. TNA, FO 371/36038, Air Ministry to FO, 30 Dec 1942; Political Intelligence Dept, FO, ‘Avis no. 7’, BBC French Service, 29 Dec 1942.
53. Eddy Florentin, Quand les Alliés bombardaient la France 1940–1945 (Paris: 2008), 159–61.
54. SHAA, 3D/322/Dossier 1, ‘Bombardement du centre industriel de Boulogne-Billancourt, 4 Avril 1943’, BN, Défense Passive, Bulletin de Renseignements, Mar–May 1943, table V.
55. TNA, FO 371/36038, minute by William Strang (FO), 16 Apr 1943; AIR 19/218, Massigli to Eden, 16 Apr 1943.
56. TNA, AIR 19/218, telegram JSM, Washington, DC, to Air Ministry, 28 Apr 1943; Sinclair to Eden, 9 May 1943; Air Vice Marshal Evill to Eaker, 10 May 1943; Sinclair to Eden, 5 June 1943.
57. Richard Overy, ‘The Luftwaffe and the European Economy 1939–1945’, Militärgeschichtliche Mitteilungen, 55 (1979), 58–60.
58. Florentin, Quand les Alliés bombardaient la France, 238–43.
59. Roger Freeman, The Mighty Eighth War Diary (London: 1981), 112, 115.
60. BN, Bulletin de Renseignements, Oct 1943, 8–11.
61. TNA, AIR 40/1720, MAAF Military Intelligence Division Report from Centre de Documentation des Services Spéciaux, 7, 18.
62. SHAA, 3D/322/Dossier 1, ‘Bombardement de l’usine Dunlop, 16 septembre, 1943’, 1.
63. Ibid., Armée de l’Air, ‘Bombardements aériens en territoire français: Avant propos: 1944’ [May 1944], 1–3.
64. Ibid., ‘Bombardement de St. Étienne, 26 Mai 1944’, 7–8.
65. BN, Bulletin d’Information de la Défense Passive, May 1944, 7–8; SHAA, 3D/322/Dossier 1, ‘Bombardement de la gare d’Avignon, 27 Mai, 25 Juin 1944’, 4.
66. Baldoli, Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 51–3, 55.
67. Ibid., 92–3, 99.
68. BA-MA, RL13/21, Luftschutz-Abteilung 15, Allgemeiner Erfahrungsbericht, 30 Apr 1942.
69. SHAA, 3D/44/Dossier 2, Admiral Duplat to General Pintor (President of Italian Armistice Commission), 17 Nov 1940; IAC to French delegation, 1 Apr 1941; IAC to French delegation, 23 Sept 1941.
70. Ibid., German Armistice Commission (Air Force) to French delegation, 27 Nov 1941.
71. Ibid., Note for the French delegation at Wiesbaden, 3 Feb 1942; note from Direction des Services de l’Armistice to French delegation, 3 June 1942; Secrétariat à l’Aviation, ‘Obscurissement de la zone non occupée’, 6 Aug 1942.
72. Ibid., memorandum of the German Armistice Commission to the French delegation, 27 Nov 1941, 1.
73. BA-MA, RL7/141, Intelligence Report, Air Fleet 3, ‘Aufbau der französischen Heimatluftverteidigung’, 1 May 1943; Intelligence Report, Air Fleet 3, 1 Aug 1943.
74. SHAA, 3D/44/Dossier 1, SGDA, CoS to the Interior Ministry, 5 June 1943, encl. memorandum from Air Fleet 3, 16 Feb 1943; Direction de la Défense Aérienne to SGDA, Bureau C, 24 June 1943.
75. BA-MA, RL7/141, Intelligence Report, Air Fleet 3, 1 May 1943; SGDA to Secrétariat Générale à la Défense Terrestre, 27 Apr 1943.
76. SHAA, 3D/279/Dossier 2, Commandant de Groupe de SAP, Lyon, 20 Feb 1943; Dossier 1, Defence Secretary to Minister of Industrial Production, ‘Service d’alerte’, 1 Oct 1943; SGDA, Bureau A, ‘Recapitulation des effectifs des formations de SAP’, 13 Sept 1943; SGDA to Director of Air Services, Northern Zone, 20 Sept 1943. The main centres in the south were at Lyon, Montpellier, Marseille, Limoges and Toulouse; in the north at Paris, Tours, Dijon, Bordeaux and Reims.
77. SHAA, 3D/43/Dossier 1, Plenipotentiary Air Fleet 3 to SGDA, 20 Aug 1943; 3D/44/Dossier 1, Plenipotentiary Air Fleet 3 to SGDA, 4 July 1943.
78. Baldoli, Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 92–3.
79. SHAA, 3D/44/Dossier 1, SGDA to Air Fleet 3, 20 Mar 1944; ‘Formations et effectifs réels, Défense Passive’, 15 Jan 1944; Ministry of Interior, ‘Instruction: Service de protection’, 26 Apr 1944.
80. BA-MA, RL7/141, Plenipotentiary of Air Fleet 3, ‘Tätigkeitsbericht 1.2–15.3.1944’, 19 Mar 1944; SHAA, 3D/44/Dossier 1, SGDA to Plenipotentiary Air Fleet 3, 20 Mar 1944.
81. BA-MA, RL13/24, Kriegstagebuch [War Diary] of LS-Abt. 34, entries for 15, 16 and 29–30 Jan 1943; SHAA, 3D/322/Dossier 1, ‘Bombardement de l’Arsenal et de la ville de Lorient’, May 1944, 4–5, 8.
82. Michael Schmiedel, ‘Les Allemands et la défense passive en France: le cas de Nantes’, in Michèle Battesti, Patrick Facon (eds), Les bombardements alliés sur la France durant la Seconde Guerre Mondiale: Stratégies, bilans matériels et humains (Vincennes: 2009), 53–5.
83. BN, Bulletin de Renseignements, Oct 1943, ‘L’Oeuvre accomplice par le Service Municipal de la ville de Nantes’.
84. Julia Torrie, ‘For Their Own Good’: Civilian Evacuations in Germany and France, 1939–1945 (New York: 2010), 115–17.
85. Ibid., 125–7.
86. SHAA, 3D/44/Dossier 1, SIPEG to Directorate of Passive Defence, 26 Jan 1944; Pierre Laval to all ministries, 4 Feb 1944, 1.
87. Michael Schmiedel, ‘Orchestrated Solidarity: The Allied Air War in France and the Development of Local and State-Organised Solidarity Movements’, in Baldoli, Knapp, Overy (eds), Bombing, States and Peoples, 207–11.
88. Schmiedel, ‘Orchestrated Solidarity’, 211–13; Torrie, ‘For Their Own Good’, 153–4; Baldoli, Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 150–51.
89. SHAA, 3D/44/ Dossier 1, Laval to all ministers, 4 Feb 1944, 1–2, 5; SIPEG to Directorate of Passive Defence, 26 Jan 1944.
90. Ibid., Laval to all ministers, 2–3; Torrie, ‘For Their Own Good’, 159; Baldoli, Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 153–4.
91. Olivier Dumoulin, ‘A Comparative Approach to Newsreels and Bombing in the Second World War: Britain, France and Germany’, in Baldoli, Knapp, Overy (eds), Bombing, States and Peoples, 302–3; Baldoli, Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 118–19.
92. Lindsey Dodd, ‘ “Relieving Sorrow and Misfortune”? State, Charity, Ideology and Aid in Bombed-out France, 1940–1944’, in Baldoli, Knapp, Overy (eds), Bombing, States and Peoples, 83–5.
93. Ibid., 80–81, 86–7.
94. Torrie, ‘For Their Own Good’, 135–7.
95. Stenton, Radio London and Resistance, 110.
96. TNA, FO 898/457, PWE, ‘Annual Dissemination of Leaflets by Aircraft and Balloon 1939–1945’.
97. LC, Spaatz pa
pers, Box 157, memorandum, CoS of Eighth Air Force, 11 Aug 1942; USAAF Adjutant-General to commander of Eighth Air Force, 25 Sept 1943.
98. Ibid., Box 157, Frank Kaufman, Chief (Leaflet Section) PWB to Robert Bruce Lockhart (PWE), 22 Apr 1944, ‘Leaflet Production and Dissemination Program between now and D-Day’; Political Warfare Division (SHAEF), ‘The Leaflet Propaganda Front’, 19 June 1944, 3.
99. Philippe Boiry, Paris sous les bombes: Auteuil septembre 1943 (Paris: 2000), 37–8.
100. TNA, AIR 40/1720, MAAF Intelligence Division Report, 30 May 1944, 1, 8. See too Kitson, ‘Criminals or Liberators?’, 285–8.
101. TNA, AIR 40/1720, MAAF Intelligence Division Report, 30 May 1944, 13–15.
102. TNA, FO 371/41984, minute for Churchill from Desmond Morton, 9 May 1944; Direction Technique des Services Spéciaux, ‘Les bombardements alliés et leurs repercussions sur le moral français’, 25 Apr 1944.
103. Ibid., ‘France: Cardinals’ Message to British and U.S. Episcopates’, 14 May 1944; Archbishop of Westminster to French Cardinals, 20 May 1944.
104. Patrick Facon, ‘Les bombardements Alliés sur la France durant la Seconde Guerre Mondiale: Enjeux, thématiques et problématiques’, in Battesti, Facon (eds), Les bombardements alliés, 13–14.
105. Baldoli, Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 211–13.
106. TNA, AIR 40/1720, MAAF, Military Intelligence Division Report, 30 May 1944, 17–18.
107. Baldoli, Knapp, Forgotten Blitzes, 210–11; Torrie, ‘For Their Own Good’, 113.
108. Jean-Marie Pontaut, Éric Pelletier, Chronique d’une France occupée: Les rapports confidentiels de la gendarmerie 1940–1945 (Neuilly-sur-Seine: 2008), 444, ‘Rapport du commandant de gendarmerie de la Charente’, July 1943.
109. BA-MA, RL7/141, Intelligence Report, Air Fleet 3, 1 Aug 1943, 2; minute, 14 July 1943, ‘Überwachung der einzustehenden französischen Eisenbahnflakbatterien’; Intelligence Report, Air Fleet 3, 2 Sept 1943.
110. BA-MA, RL7/141, Intelligence Report, Air Fleet 3, 1 Oct 1943; SHAA, 3D/43/Dossier 1, Sec. Gen. of Air Defence to Col. von Merhart, 18 Sept 1943; Plenipotentiary of the German Air Force, Paris, to Col. Cornillon (Liaison Service), 18 Nov 1943.
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