by Susan Jaques
34 Hughes, Rome, 368.
35 Plant, Venice, 74.
36 Ibid.
37 Canova and his Legacy, 2017, 60.
38 Hughes, Rome, 369.
39 Charney, Stealing, 93.
40 Siegfied, Ingres, 265.
41 Ibid., 273.
42 Rosenberg, Dominique-Vivant Denon: L’oeil de Napoléon, 279.
43 Ibid., 280.
44 Ibid., 16.
45 Michel Kimmelman, “Ingres at the Louvre: His Pursuit of a Higher Reality,” New York Times, March 24, 2008, http://www.nytimes.com/2006/03/24/arts/design/ingres-at-the-louvre-his-pursuit-of-a-higher-reality.html.
46 Hochel, Dominique-Vivant Denon, 7.
47 Garric, Charles Percier, 71.
48 Ibid., 63.
49 Stammers, “The man.”
50 Van Zanten, “Fontaine in the Burnham Library.”
51 Garric, Charles Percier, 46.
52 Hibbert, Napoleon’s Women, 316.
53 Ibid., 319.
54 Caracciolo, Les Soeurs de Napoleon.
55 Antonio Canova, Joachim Murat, 1813, marble, 19 7/10" (50 cm), Christie’s, http://www.christies.com/lotfinder/Lot/antonio-canova-1757-1822-1813-joachim-murat-1767-1815-6113947-details.aspx
56 Hibbert, Napoleon’s Women, 330.
57 Ibid., 329.
THREE: RES GESTAE
1 Harriet I. Flower, The Art of Forgetting: Disgrace and Oblivion in Roman Political Culture (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011), 43–44.
2 Sarah E. Bond, “Erasing the Face of History,” May 14, 2011, New York Times, http://www.nytimes.com/2011/05/15/opinion/15bond.html?_r=1&.
3 Flower, The Art of Forgetting, 116.
4 Maureen Carroll,“Memoria and Damnatio Memoriae. Preserving and erasing identities in Roman funerary commemoration,” in Living through the Dead: Burial and Commemoration in the Classical World, ed. Maureen Carroll and Jane Rempel (Oxford, U.K.: Oxbow Books, 2011), 72.
5 Bond, Erasing the Face of History.
6 Beard, “The Twelve Caesars.”
7 Hazareesingh, Legend, 59.
8 Ibid., 39.
9 Ibid., 47.
10 Fiona Parr, “The Death of Napoleon Bonaparte and the Retour des Cendres: French and British Perspectives,” Napoleon Foundation, https://www.napoleon.org/en/history-of-the-two-empires/articles/the-death-of-napoleon-bonaparte-and-the-retour-des-cendres-french-and-british-perspectives/.
11 Cordier, Napoleon: The Imperial Household, 246.
12 Susan Jenkins, “Buying Bonaparte,” Apollo (Nov. 2010): 50.
13 Hazareesingh, Legend, 73.
14 Susan Jenkins, “Arthur Wellesley, First Duke of Wellington, Apsley House and Canova’s Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker,” Sculpture Journal, no. 19 (2010): 116.
15 Jenkins, Arthur Wellesley, 116.
16 Ibid.
17 Ibid., 120.
18 Roberts, Napoleon: A Life, 518.
19 De Bellaigue, A Royal Keepsake, 112.
20 Wendy Moonan, “Napoleonic Style, in All Its Imperial Self-Promotion,” New York Times, Nov. 2, 2007, http://www.nytimes.com/2007/11/02/arts/design/02anti.html.
21 Cordier, Napoleon: The Imperial Household, 82.
22 Hazareesingh, Legend, 150.
23 Augustus, Res Gestae, 6.
24 Ibid., 37.
25 Ibid., 3.
26 Huet, Stories, 23.
27 Ibid., 13.
28 Bonaparte, Aphorisms, 76.
29 Herold, The Mind of Napoleon, 255.
30 “Who Exactly Was the Conte de Las Cases?” Napoleon Foundation, October, 2017, www.napoleon.org/en/magazine/interviews/exactly-las-cases-three-questions-francois-houdecek-october-2017-memorial-napoleon-st_helena/.
31 Hazareesingh, Legend, 69.
32 Haig, Walks Through, 99.
33 Parr, The Death of Napoleon Bonaparte.
34 Ayers, The Architecture of Paris, 145.
35 Ibid., 146.
36 Rapelli, Symbols, 375.
37 Haig, Walks Through, 101.
38 Ibid., 111.
39 Muratori-Philip, Arc de Triomphe, 11.
40 Haig, Walks Through, 100.
41 Victor Hugo, Poems in Three Volumes, Vol. 1 (Boston: Estes and Lauriat, n.d.).
42 Haig, Walks Through, 101.
43 Hazareesingh, Legend, 155.
44 “Napoleon’s Tomb,” Illustrated Magazine of Art 2, no. 10 (Jan. 1853): 231.
45 Ibid., 240.
46 Ayers, The Architecture of Paris, 146.
47 Karine Huguenard, “Les Invalides, the Military Museum and the Tomb of Napoleon,” Napoleon Foundation, https://www.napoleon.org/en/magazine/places/les-invalides-the-military-museum-and-tomb-of-napoleon/Napoleon.org.
POSTSCRIPT
1 Ben Pollitt, “Vignon, Church of La Madeleine,” Smarthistory, January 8, 2016.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The idea for The Caesar of Paris came from reading Antonio Canova’s Napoleon and Canova: eight conversations, published in London in 1825. In 1810, Napoleon strong-armed the Rome-based sculptor into modeling a portrait of his new wife at Fontainebleau. Canova did not expect to find Napoleon at every sitting. Fortunately he recorded their breakfast conversations, excerpts of which appear here. Pierre Fontaine’s candid observations in his Journal 1799–1853 were key to understanding the motivations behind Napoleon’s building program, as was a 2016 exhibition/symposium on Fontaine’s unsung partner, Charles Percier, organized by Jean-Philippe Garric at the Bard Graduate Center.
I owe a large debt of gratitude to the scholarship of many biographers, historians, and writers whose outstanding works are referenced. Again and again, works of two ancient writers lit the way: Pliny the Elder’s Natural History and The Lives of the Twelve Caesars by Suetonius. Also indispensable: Matthew Zarzeczny’s Meteors that Enlighten the Earth: Napoleon and the Cult of Great Men, Sylvain Cordier’s Napoleon: The Imperial Household, and the Fondation Napoleon’s encyclopedic website, napoleon.org.
A number of people have been especially generous in helping me think about Napoleon’s relationship with antiquity. Thomas W. Gaehtgens, former director of the Getty Research Institute, steered me toward looking at the impact of place on the itinerant emperor. Josephine Oxley, Keeper of the Wellington Collection, Apsley House and Wellington Arch, shared her insights on Canova’s Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker. Alain Pougetoux, Chief Curator of Château de Malmaison; Marc Desti, Conservateur of the Palais impérial de Compiègne; and Isabella Botti of the Galleria Borghese were invaluable guides.
Thanks too to Mario Guderzo, director of the Gypsotheca e Museo Antonio Canova; Alberto Craievich, director of the Ca’ Rezzonico Museum in Venice; Jens Daehner, associate curator of antiquities at the Getty Villa; Nigel Spivey of the University of Cambridge; Jean François Bédard of Syracuse University; Quentin Buvelot, senior curator at the Royal Picture Gallery Mauritshuis in The Hague; Frank Pohle, history professor at RWTH Aachen University; and Martin Hirsch, curator at the Staatliche Münzsammlung, Munich.
From ancient civilizations to France’s First Empire, the resources of the Getty Research Library were invaluable. For her help with translations, I am extremely grateful to my colleague Alex Wolfe. Thanks again to my agent, Alice Martell. It’s been a true pleasure working with my insightful editor, Jessica Case, Maria Fernandez, and the team at Pegasus Books.
I would like to thank my wonderful family for their endless support and encouragement, especially my daughter, Clara, and husband, Doug, to whom this book is dedicated.
Susan Jaques
August 2018
ILLUSTRATION CREDITS
Fig. 1: Vase depicting Napoleon in front of Italian works of art being delivered to Louvre. Copyright © The De Agostini Picture Library / G. Dagli Orti / Bridgeman Images.
Fig. 2: Laocoön and his sons. By Jean-Pol Grandmont [CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0) or GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html)], via Wikimedia Commons.
Fig. 3: Apollo Belvedere. By De
nnis Jarvis from Halifax (Italy-3104 - Apollo) [CC BY-SA 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons.
Fig. 4: Venus de’ Medici. By Wai Laam Lo [CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0) or GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html)], from Wikimedia Commons.
Fig. 5: Alexander the Great. By Carole Raddato from Frankfurt [CC BY-SA 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons.
Fig. 6: Frontispiece to Volume 1 of the “Description of Egypt.” Copyright © Private Collection / The Stapleton Collection / Bridgeman Images.
Fig. 7: Portrait of Gaius Julius Caesar, the Green Caesar. By Anagoria [Public domain] via Wikimedia Commons.
Fig. 8: Portrait Head of Augustus. Copyright © The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles.
Fig. 9: Napoleon Crossing the Grand Saint-Bernard Pass. Copyright © Bridgeman Images.
Fig. 10: Portrait of Joséphine. Copyright © Wellington Collection, Apsley House, London.
Fig. 11: Bonbonniere with portraits of Eugene (1781–1824), Hortense (1783–1837), Josephine Beauharnais (1763–1814), and Louis Bonaparte (1778–1846). Copyright © Musee National du Chateau de Malmaison, Rueil-Malmaison, France / Bridgeman Images.
Fig. 12: Marie-Annuciade-Caroline Bonaparte, Queen of Naples with her daughter Laetitia-Joséphine Murat. Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons.
Fig. 13: Elisa Bonaparte (1777–1820) Grand Duchess of Tuscany and her Daughter Napoleone-Elisa. Copyright © Bridgeman Images.
Fig. 14: Bust of Joachim Murat. From private collection, photo courtesy of Christie’s Ltd, 2017.
Fig. 15: Pauline Borghese as Venus Victrix. Copyright © Leochen66, Dreamstime.com.
Fig. 16: Letitia Ramolino Bonaparte. Copyright © Devonshire Collection, Chatsworth / Reproduced by permission of Chatsworth Settlement Trustees / Bridgeman Images.
Fig. 17: Marie Louise, Empress of the French. By Dennis Jarvis from Halifax, Canada (Austria-03332 - Empress of the French) [CC BY-SA 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons.
Fig. 18: The Emperor Napoleon in His Study at the Tuileries. From the Samuel H. Kress Collection, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
Fig. 19: Napoleon as Mars the Peacekeeper. Copyright © Wellington Collection, Apsley House, London.
Fig. 20: Portrait of Pope Pius VII. Copyright © Wellington Collection, Apsley House, London.
Fig. 21: Portrait of Antonio Canova. Copyright © The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles.
Fig. 22: Portraits of Charles Percier, Pierre Fontaine, and Claude-Louis Bernier. Gift of David Jenness in honor of Arthur F. Jenness. Image courtesy of the Clark Art Institute, Williamstown, Massachusetts.
Fig. 23: David par lui-même. Copyright © The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles.
Fig. 24: Portrait of Dominique-Vivant Denon. Copyright © De Agostini Picture Library / G. Dagli Orti / Bridgeman Images.
Fig. 25: Josephine’s Bedroom, Malmaison. By Moonik [CC BY-SA 3.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0)], via Wikimedia Commons.
Fig. 26: Gondola Chair from Chateau de Saint-Cloud. From [CC0], via Wikimedia Commons, photo by Jebulon.
Fig. 27: Athénienne. Bequest of James Alexander Scrymser, 1918. Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Fig. 28: Coin cabinet. Bequest of Collis P. Huntington, 1900. Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Fig. 29: Table of the Great Commanders. From the Royal Collection Trust © Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth II, 2018 / Bridgeman Images.
Fig. 30: Austerlitz Table. Copyright © Musee National du Chateau de Malmaison, Rueil-Malmaison, France / Bridgeman Images.
Fig. 31: Sword worn by Napoléon I at the Battle of Austerlitz. By Rama [CC BY-SA 2.0 fr (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/fr/deed.en) or CeCILL (http://www.cecill.info/licences/Licence_CeCILL_V2-en.html)], via Wikimedia Commons.
Fig. 32: Bayeux Tapestry, scene 57, Harold’s death. By Myrabella [Public domain or CC0], from Wikimedia Commons.
Fig. 33: Imperial Eagle on main portal of Fontainebleau. By dynamosquito [CC BY-SA 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons.
Fig. 34: Eagle, A.D. 100–200. Copyright © The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles.
Fig. 35: Reliquary Bust of Charlemagne. Copyright © Hurza, Dreamstime.com.
Fig. 36: Hand of Justice. By Marie-Lan Nguyen [CC BY 2.5 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5)], via Wikimedia Commons,.
Fig. 37: Crown of Charlemagne. By Faqscl (Own work) [CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)], via Wikimedia Commons.
Fig. 38: The Coronation of Napoleon, detail. Copyright © Legacy1995, Dreamstime.com.
Fig. 39: Silver medallion, Napoleon and Charlemagne. Photo courtesy of Bonhams.
Fig. 40: Portrait of Napoleon I as King of Italy. By Dennis Jarvis from Halifax (Austria-03330 - Napoleon I) [CC BY-SA 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons.
Fig. 41: Joséphine in Coronation Costume. Public domain, via Wikimedia Commons.
Fig. 42: The Arch of Septimus and Temple of Vespasian, Rome. Copyright © The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles.
Fig. 43: Arch of Constantine, Rome. Copyright © The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles.
Fig. 44: Arc de Triomphe du Carrousel, Paris. By Rafesmar [CC BY-SA 4.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0)], from Wikimedia Commons.
Fig. 45: The Horses of St. Mark’s Basilica. Copyright © Scaliger, Dreamstime.com.
Fig. 46: Interior of the Arch of Titus, Rome. Copyright © The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles.
Fig. 47: Arc de Triomphe de l’Étoile, Paris. By Dennis Jarvis, Halifax (France-000136 - Arc de Triomphe) [CC BY-SA 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons.
Fig. 48: Arch of Titus, interior detail. Copyright © The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles.
Fig. 49: Triumph of 1810, Arc de Triomphe. By Dennis Jarvis, Halifax (France-000142 - Triumph of 1810) [CC BY-SA 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons.
Fig. 50: Trajan’s Column, detail, Rome. Copyright © The J. Paul Getty Museum, Los Angeles.
Fig. 51: Vendome Column, detail, Paris. By Gordon Gartrell (IMG_9428) [CC BY-SA 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons.
Fig. 52: Trajan’s Column, Rome, detail. Copyright © Tiziano Casalta, Dreamstime.com.
Fig. 53: Vendome Column, Paris, detail. Copyright © Daniele Longhi, Dreamstime.com.
Fig. 54: Maison Carrée, Nimes. By Dennis Jarvis, Halifax (France-002364 - Square House) [CC BY-SA 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons.
Fig. 55: The Madeleine Church, Paris. Copyright © Rene Drouyer, Dreamstime.com.
Fig. 56: The Bourse of Paris. Copyright © Kovalenkov Petr, Dreamstime.com.
Fig. 57: View of the Elephant Fountain at the Place de la Bastille. Copyright © Musee de la Ville de Paris, Musee Carnavalet, Paris / Bridgeman Images.
Fig. 58: The Great Cameo of France, Roman. Copyright © Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris / Bridgeman Images.
Fig. 59: Marie-Louise of Austria (1791–1847) guiding her son, with the ribbon of a medal of the Legion of Honour, towards a bust of Napoleon Bonapart. Copyright © Musee National de la Legion d’Honneur, Paris, France / Bridgeman Images.
Figs. 60 and 61: Napoleon, Baptism of the King of Rome. Copyright © Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fund, New York, 1977.
Fig. 62: Cradle of the King of Rome. Photograph by Dennis Jarvis, Halifax, Canada (Austria-03324) [CC BY-SA 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons.
Fig. 63: Pope Pius VII in the Sistine Chapel. Copyright © Samuel H. Kress Collection, National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
Fig. 64: Temple Canoviano, Possagno, Italy. By mrlov (P1070329) [CC BY-SA 2.0 (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0)], via Wikimedia Commons.
&
nbsp; Fig. 65: The History of Christianity, Madeleine Church. Copyright © Photogolfer, Dreamstime.com.
Fig. 66: Tomb of Napoleon. Copyright © Dennis Dolkens, Dreamstime.com.
INDEX
Page numbers listed correspond to the print edition of this book. You can use your device’s search function to locate particular terms in the text.
A
Aachen, 102, 119–121, 125–132
Aachen Cathedral, 126, 127, 130
Académie de France, 388
Academy of Fine Arts, 288
Accademia di San Luca, 388–389
Adolphus, Gustavus, 11
aediculae, 285–286
Aemilianus, Scipio, 8
Aeneid, 17
Africanus, Scipio, 8
Agesander of Rhodes, 86
Agrippa, Marcus, 105–106
Agrippina the Elder, 273–274, 358–359
Agrippina the Younger, 273–274
Aix-la-Chapelle, 102, 119–1221, 126–133
Akhenaten, 464
Ala Napoleonica, 291
Alavoine, Jean-Antoine, 413–414
Albacini, Carlo, 400
Albani, Alessandro, 16, 18, 40, 230
Albani, Giuseppe, 438
Alberti, Leon Battista, 198
Albrizzi, Isabella Teotochi, 32
Alcuin of York, 119
Alesia, Battle of, 5
Alexander Frieze (Thorvaldsen), 402
Alexander I, 175, 176, 213, 214, 313–314, 318, 369, 404, 406, 417, 422–423, 442–443
Alexander the Great, xi, xv, 93, 128, 189, 404
Egypt and, 24, 35
elephant symbol and, 112, 412–413
images of, 387
Napoleon on, 28, 429
sarcophagus of, 36–37
Table of the Great Commanders and, 246–247
tomb of, 25, 131, 208
Alexander VI, 11
Alexander VII, 299, 411
Alexandre-Florian-Joseph, Comte Colonna Walewski, 332
Alexandria, Egypt, 24, 27–30, 131, 208, 244
Alexandrian library, 306
Alfieri, Vittorio, xiv
allegory, 226
Allies, 175, 416–417, 419, 420, 425–427, 434, 444, 446, 449
Alquier, Charles-Jean Marie, 44
Altar of Victory, 13
altarpieces, 12, 14, 19, 41, 91, 95, 127, 213, 258, 298, 309, 391, 440, 455