Venezuela shown on maps before Europeans arrived there – Cantino (1502), Martellus (1484), Waldseemüller (1507). Chinese chickens and coconuts found by first Europeans. Illustrated Record of Strange Countries published 1430 in China shows South American animals. Antonio Galvão cites Chinese claims to have ruled South America before Europeans. Chinese jade in Costa Rica/Panama. 26 chromosome cotton in Revilagigedo Islands. Columbus found Chinese people and horses in Panama; Chinese ship’s dogs also found.
see Synopsis of Evidence on www.gavinmenzies.net, paras 4, 5, 10, 15–17, 20, Annex XX
Surui people of Amazonia and Solimões/Rio Negro Junction Principal DNA report relied upon: Novick et al
Précis of the report’s findings: close similarity between the Chinese and Native Americans suggests recent gene flow from Asia
Corroboration or supporting DNA reports: none yet
Corroboration or supporting reports into ailments or diseases that suggest Chinese arrived by sea Tokelau/chimbere found in Amazonian people – tokelau a disease of SE Asia (Fonseca)
Hepatitis B prevalent
Hookworm/roundworm prevalent
Absence of Duffy blood groups
Lung fluke (Paragorimus westermani)
Did the first Europeans to reach the area in which the Surui people live find Chinese already there? Yes, Friar Gaspar de Carvajal – ‘men with pale skins’
Other evidence showing links with China Diseases common to SE Asia but not to Americas found in Amazonian people who had been isolated from European contact for centuries; tokelau, hepatitis B and hookworm/roundworm could not have been carried over Bering Straits on account of the cold. The site of Hatahara recently discovered at junction of Negro and Solimões Rivers indicates very old settlement. Brazilian delegation reached China before Europeans reached Brazil and China (Professor Bi Quanzhong). Brazil shown on maps before Columbus set sail and before Europeans arrived there – 1436 Andrea Bianco. First Europeans (Orellana/Carvajal) found rice fields, banana and coconut plantations, frizzle fowl, black Melanotic, Asian jungle fowl, water buffalo – all indigenous to China/SE Asia; subsequent finds of pre-European Chinese animals and artefacts: fulvous tree duck, jade at Amazon/Tapajos and Solimões/Rio Negro junctions, Lago Sapakua, Lago de Faro.
see Synopsis of Evidence on www.gavinmenzies.net, paras 1–7, 10, 15–17, Annex X
Quechua (Bolivia/Mato Grosso borders) and Toba (NW Argentina, Salado River) peoples Principal DNA report relied upon: Novick et al
Précis of the report’s findings: close similarity between the Chinese and Native Americans suggests recent gene flow from Asia
Corroboration or supporting DNA reports: none yet
Corroboration or supporting reports into ailments or diseases that suggest Chinese arrived by sea Tokelau, hepatitis B and hookworm/roundworm
Did the first Europeans to reach the area in which the Quechua and Toba peoples live find Chinese already there? Not as far as we know, but we have not yet studied the reports of the Jesuits, a project we hope to undertake shortly
Other evidence showing links with China Rice fields found by the first Europeans to reach the Paraguay and Panama Rivers. Chinese junks found wrecked by the first Spaniards to round the Horn. Drawings on the Piri Reis (and in The Illustrated Record of Strange Countries published in China in 1430) show animals of Patagonia drawn long before Europeans arrived there.
see Synopsis of Evidence on www.gavinmenzies.net, paras 1, 4, 5, 8, 15–17, 20A, Annexes XXII, XXVI, XXVII
Haida and Aleut peoples Principal DNA report relied upon: Novick et al
Précis of the report’s findings: close similarity between the Chinese and Native Americans suggests recent gene flow from Asia
Corroboration or supporting DNA reports The astonishing similarity between Alaska (Aleut) and Chinese DNA – closer to each other than North American DNA is to Aleut
Professor Bryan Sykes, ‘Chinese DNA in Vancouver Island people’
Corroboration or supporting reports into ailments or diseases that suggest Chinese arrived by sea: none yet
Did the first Europeans to reach the area in which the Haida and Aleut peoples live find Chinese already there? Yes, Zatta (pre-Vancouver and pre-Cook) described Queen Charlotte Islands as ‘Colonia dei Chinesi’
Other evidence showing links with China Haida lore states their ancestors came from the Aleut Islands, which they did, because the Aleut and Haida languages are one. Hugo Grotius – Chinese sail to 70°N. Jodicus Hondius map shows junk. Overwhelming evidence of pre-Columbian presence of Chinese people on Vancouver and Queen Charlotte Islands, the home of the Haida.
see Synopsis of Evidence on www.gavinmenzies.net, paras 2–4, 6–9, 11–13, 19–20, Annexes XVI, XXVI and XXVII
Moskoke people of SE USA and NW Florida Principal DNA report relied upon: Novick et al
Précis of the report’s findings: close similarity between the Chinese and Native Americans suggests recent gene flow from Asia (note: the Moskoke are the furthest away from the Chinese on the ‘tree’ – further DNA evidence for Florida people is advisable)
Corroboration or supporting DNA reports: none yet
Corroboration or supporting reports into ailments or diseases that suggest Chinese arrived by sea Machado-Joseph disease prevalent among Melungeon people to the north of Moskoke
Did the first Europeans to reach the area in which the Moskoke people live find Chinese already there? Yes, Pedro Menendez de Aviles found Chinese junks wrecked off Florida
Other evidence showing links with China Wrecked junks in Caribbean, off Florida coast and in Great Dismal Swamp (Virginia) found by first Europeans. Chinese people met by Giovanni de Verrazzano off what is now New York. Overwhelming evidence of pre-Columbian visits to the Caribbean and up the east coast of North America.
see Synopsis of Evidence on www.gavinmenzies.net, Annexes IV, V, XXIV, XXVI and XXVII
Ming Ho and Melungeon peoples Principal DNA report relied upon: none yet
Précis of the report’s findings: N/A
Corroboration or supporting DNA reports: none yet
Corroboration or supporting reports into ailments or diseases that suggest Chinese arrived by sea Machado-Joseph disease is prevalent among the Melungeons (Jerry Warsing)
Did the first Europeans to reach the area in which the Ming Ho and Melungeon peoples live find Chinese already there? Yes – Captain John Smith’s accounts (Jerry Warsing, Battle of the Fallen Timbers)
Other evidence showing links with China Wrecked Chinese junks found by first Europeans (Pedro Menendez de Aviles) downwind from Virginia, off Florida and upwind, Great Dismal Swamp. Chinese people found on Atlantic coast of North America (Giovanni di Verrazzano). Many readers have commented on the ‘Chinese’ appearance of the Melungeons.
see Synopsis of Evidence on www.gavinmenzies.net, paras 1–20, Annexes V, VI, XXIV, XXVI and XXVII
Sioux and Cree Ojibwa peoples of America and Canada Principal DNA report relied upon: Novick et al
Précis of the report’s findings: close similarity between the Chinese and Native Americans suggests recent gene flow from Asia
Corroboration or supporting DNA reports A 1997 study published by the National Academy of Sciences appears to support the fact that the New World’s first migrants came from Asia. Researchers studied Native Americans from the Navajo, Chamorro and Flathead tribes (Montana) and determined that all three groups possess a unique type of retrovirus gene JCV found only in China and Japan.
Corroboration or supporting reports into ailments or diseases that suggest Chinese arrived by sea: none yet
Did the first Europeans to reach the area in which the Sioux and Cree Ojibwa peoples live find Chinese already there? Not known.
Other evidence showing links with China Substantial evidence that foreign visitors came by ship with horses and sailed up the Mississippi. Horse remains (pre-Columbus) have been found near Thunder Bay, Lake Superior. Rock Lake, Wisconsin, contains flat-topped stepped pyramids under its
waters. Elephant bones have been found, and a round stone fortress.
see Synopsis of Evidence on www.gavinmenzies.net, paras 12 and 16, Annex VIII
Maidu, Yuki, Pima and Wintun peoples of California Principal DNA report relied upon: (Schurr et al on the Pima)
Précis of the report’s findings: N/A
Corroboration or supporting DNA reports: none yet
Corroboration or supporting reports into ailments or diseases which suggest Chinese arrived by sea: none yet
Did the first Europeans to reach the area in which the Maidu, Yuki, Pima and Wintun peoples live find Chinese already there? Yes – Cabrillo/Ferrello found wrecked Chinese junks off the north California/Oregon coast
Other evidence showing links with China After Cabrillo and Ferrello’s sightings, a stream of European explorers found Chinese people or colonies existing in California. There is overwhelming evidence of a Chinese settlement in California before Europeans arrived. Stephen Powers found a Chinese-speaking colony between the Russian and Sacramento Rivers; Father Luis Sales found one between San Francisco and Santa Barbara. All manner of pre-Columbian Chinese plants, trees, animals, porcelain, jade, stones, bronzes. Gregorio Garcia and Antonio Galvão describe pre-European Chinese settlements in California. Professor Fryer reports Chinese walls.
see Synopsis of Evidence on www.gavinmenzies.net, paras 2, 3, 6–12, 15–16, 18, Annexes XVII, XXV and XXVI
Maori people of New Zealand, North Island Principal DNA report relied upon: not known; reported on ABC programme Catalyst, 27 March 2003, author Dr Gregory Chambers
Précis of the report’s findings: (as reported by David Knight 7.4.03) mitochondrial DNA shows female line is entirely Asian while Y chromosome DNA shows males came from Papua New Guinea
Corroboration or supporting DNA reports: none yet
Corroboration or supporting reports into ailments or diseases which suggest Chinese arrived by sea: none yet
Did the first Europeans to reach the area in which the Maori people live find Chinese already there? Captain Cook’s diaries do not say Chinese, but they do say Maoris had met earlier seafarers in New Zealand
Other evidence showing links with China Plants and animals foreign to New Zealand were already there when the first Europeans arrived. The Ruapuke wreck and its associated Chinese artefacts. Campbell and Auckland Islands are shown on the Jean Rotz chart two centuries before Cook arrived.
see Synopsis of Evidence on www.gavinmenzies.net
Gunditjmara Aborigines of Victoria, South Australia Principal DNA report relied upon: ‘Evolution of Modern Humans’ by Joanna Mountain in Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London 337 (1992) 159–165
Précis of the report’s findings: this is a very generalised report and weak evidence of recent Chinese voyages
Corroboration or supporting DNA reports: it is believed there are reports which the Australian government does not wish to have published
Corroboration or supporting reports into ailments or diseases which suggest Chinese arrived by sea: none that are known, save for Machado-Joseph disease among the Aborigines of Arnhem Land
Did the first Europeans to reach the area in which the Gunditjmara people live find Chinese already there? Not known.
Other evidence showing links with China The Gunditjmara people claim their ancestors came from overseas and instituted eel farming in Australia. Wrecked junks at Warrnambool and King Island. Maps of Australia drawn centuries before Europeans arrived there, e.g. Toscanelli (1474), which shows the internal river systems of Australia.
see Synopsis of Evidence on www.gavinmenzies.net
Papers referred to
Araújo, Adauto José Goncalves de, ‘Contribuição ao Estudo de Helmintos encontrados em Material Arqueológico do Brasil’ (parasites common to Asia and South America)
Arnaiz-Villena, A., Vargas-Alarón Granados, J. et al, ‘HCA Genes in Mexican Mazatecans, the peopling of the Americas, and the uniqueness of Amerindians’, Tissue Antigero 2000
Biocca, Ettore, ‘Hookworms and the Origin of American Indians’, L’Anthropologie 55/5
Bruce-Chwatt, L. J., ‘Paleogenesis and paleo-epidemiology of primate malaria’, Bulletin, World Health Organisation 32: pp.363–87 (malaria in pre-Columbian America)
Cambridge Study (Incas to Polynesia ) – see postscript
Darling, S. T., ‘Hookworms, Ancylostoria and Necator in Pre-Columbian America’, Parasitology, 12/3
Fonseca, Olympio da, ‘Parasitismo e Migrações da Parasitologia’, ‘Contribuiçõés das origens do Hominem Americano’ (para 15 in The Americans re Human Migration), Estudos da Préhistoria Geral e Brasileira, São Paolo, 1970
Laming-Emperaire, Annette, ‘Le Problème de Origines Américains: théories, hypotheses, documents’, Editions de la Maison des Sciences de l’Homme, Presses Universitaires de Lille, Lille 1980 (summary of diseases shared between Old World and pre-Columbian Indians) Morael, Virginia, ‘Research News: Confusion in Earliest America’, Science, no.248 (genetic diversity of American Indians)
Needham, J., ‘The mountain of evidence of pre-Columbian contact with the Americas before Columbus’, Science and Civilisation in China, vol.4, p.540
New Zealand Study (Maori DNA) – see postscript (Dr Gregory Chambers)
Nicolle, Charles, ‘Un argument medical en faveur de l’opinion de Paul Rivet sur l’origine océanienne du certain tribus indiennes du Nouveau Monde’, Journal de la société des Américanistes de Paris 24 (typhus of Mexico and Guatemala differs from Eurasian)
Novick, Gabriel E., Corina C. Novick, Juan Yunis, Emilio Yunis, Pamela Antunez de Mayolo, W. Douglas Scheer, Prescott L. Deininger, Mark Stoneking, Daniel S. York, Mark A. Batzer and Rene J. Herrera, ‘Polymorphic Alu Insertions and the Asian Origin of Native American Populations’, Human Biology, vol.70, no.1, p.23, copyright 1998 Wayne State University Press, Detroit, Michigan.
Sandison, A. T., ‘Diseases in antiquity: a survey of the diseases, injuries and surgery of early populations’, in Parasitic Diseases, C. T. Thomas, Springhurst, Illinois, 1967
Schurr, T. G., Ballinger, S. W., Gan Y-Y et al, ‘Amerindian mitrochondrial DNAs have rare Asian mutations at high frequencies’, American Journal of Human Genetics, 46, 1990, 613–23
Soper, T., ‘The report of a nearly pure Ancylostoma duodenale infestation in native South American Indians and a discussion of ethnological signatures’, American Journal of Hygiene, 1927
Sykes, Bryan, The Seven Daughters of Eve, Bantam Press, 2000, pp.101–6 and 282–95
Vilchis, F., Zúñiga, J., Granados, J. et al, ‘Análisis del polimorfismo V89L de Sa esteroide reductasa en un groupo étnicamente preservado’, Genética y Biomedicina Molecular 200, Resumen C., Monterrey, NL (Mexico)
NOTE: for a full bibliography for 1421, please refer to the website www.gavinmenzies.net
APPENDIX 2
THE DETERMINATION OF LONGITUDE BY THE CHINESE IN THE EARLY FIFTEENTH CENTURY
Authors: Professor John Oliver, co-chairman and Professor of the Department of Astronomy, University of Florida (JO)
Mr Marshall Payn (MP)
Gavin Menzies, author of 1421 – The Year China Discovered the World (GM)
This paper is set out as follows:
Introduction
Chinese astronomical knowledge in 1421
The Chinese determination of elapsed time
Chinese observatories
Eclipses
Passage of events during a lunar eclipse
Longitude determined by elapsed time during a lunar eclipse
Proof of the theory
Practical implementation
Introduction (GM)
GM contends that during its sixth voyage (1421–3), the Chinese fleet perfected a method of determining longitude. This is illustrated by the longitude of the East African coast being accurately charted by the Chinese, then later shown on the Cantino map (1502) some three centuries before John Harrison invented the chronometer. Longitude on the East Africa
n coast between Cape Town and Djibouti, a distance of seven thousand nautical miles, is correct to within twenty nautical miles (twenty seconds of time). Detailed reasons for concluding that the Chinese were the original surveyors whose work was used to create the Cantino can be found in chapter 6 of this book.
Chinese astronomical knowledge in 1421 (GM)
By the time of their sixth voyage Zheng He’s fleets had inherited expertise gained from six centuries of charting the stars in the night sky and had predicted and noted the return of Halley’s comet on every pass since the second century BC. They were aware that the earth was a globe and had divided it into 365 and a quarter degrees (the number of days in the year) of latitude and longitude. Longitude was determined by the position on the globe east or west of Beijing; latitude was determined not from the equator but from Polaris in the north and the mid-point of the circumpolar stars in the south. The end result was the same as achieved later by Europeans. Following the voyage of Grand Eunuch Hong Bao to the Antarctic in early 1422, the Chinese knew the correct position of the South Pole. They were thus able to eliminate magnetic variation and to calculate latitude in the southern hemisphere as they did with Polaris in the north. In the early Ming era, Beijing’s astronomers charted no fewer than 1,400 stars each night as they traversed the sky, a practice Emperor Zhu Di had reinstated. The Chinese were able to predict both solar and lunar eclipses with considerable accuracy.
1421: The Year China Discovered the World Page 46