by Jon Kukla
53. Jefferson’s November 6, 1793, letter to Shelby was accompanied by a supporting letter from Knox dated November 9, ibid., 27: 312–13; Archibald Henderson, “Isaac Shelby and the Genet Mission,” MVHR 6 (1920): 454–57.
54. Jefferson to Shelby, November 6, 1793, Jefferson Papers, 27: 312–13 (emphasis added); Henderson, “Shelby and the Genet Mission,” 455–56.
55. Quoted in ibid., 463; Maude Howlett Woodfin, “Citizen Genet and His Mission” (Ph.D. diss., University of Chicago, 1928), 453–54.
56. Henderson, “Shelby and the Genet Mission,” 466; Edward Cody Burnett, ed., “George Rogers Clark to Genet, [April 28], 1794,” AHR 18 (1912–1913): 781.
57. Ibid.
58. Ibid.
59. Ibid.
CHAPTER TEN: MR. PINCKNEY’S MISSION
1. Short to Secretary of State, January 16, 1795, in Samuel Flagg Bemis, Pinckney’s Treaty: America’s Advantage from Europe’s Distress, 1783–1800 (Baltimore, 1926; rev. ed., New Haven, 1960), 248–49n
2. José Luis Sancho, Royal Seat of La Granja de San Ildefonso and Riofrío (Madrid, 1996), 13–15, 69–79; Bemis, Pinckney’s Treaty, 204–6; Harry Ammon, The Genet Mission (New York, 1973), 171–72; Carondelet to Godoy, July 9, 1794, Frederick Jackson Turner, ed., “Correspondence of George Rogers Clark and Edmond Genet,” Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Year 1896 (Washington, D.C., 1897), 1066; James Alton James, The Life of George Rogers Clark (Chicago, 1928), 427; James Ripley Jacobs, Tarnished Warrior: Major-General James Wilkinson (New York, 1938), 272; Thomas Rob-son Hay and M. R. Werner, The Admirable Trumpeter: A Biography of General James Wilkinson (Garden City, N.Y., 1941), 141; Georges Lefebvre, The French Revolution: From 1793 to 1799 (New York, 1964), 131–36; Schama, Citizens, 840–47; Stanley Elkins and Eric McKitrick, The Age of Federalism (New York, 1993), 375–449.
3. Minutes of the Spanish Council of State, July 7, 1794, in Bemis, Pinckney’s Treaty, 204n.
4. Short to Thomas Pinckney October 12, 1793, ibid., 191–92n
5. Minutes of the Spanish Council of State, July 7, 1794, in Bemis, Pinckney’s Treaty, 204n.
6. Douglas Hilt, The Troubled Trinity: Godoy and the Spanish Monarchs (Tuscaloosa, 1987), 40–43.
7. Minutes of the Spanish Council of State, July 7, 1794, in Bemis, Pinckney’s Treaty, 205n.
8. Ibid., 205–6n.
9. Ibid., 207. Between July 1794 and the signing of Pinckney’s Treaty in October 1795, Godoy regarded the prospect of Kentucky separatism as an alternative policy in the event of an alliance between Great Britain and the United States, instructing Jaudenes and Carondelet in February “to continue to assure [the inhabitants of Kentucky] of the good faith with which we proceed; and … [to] set up with the greatest secrecy direct negotiations with them, to hold them off until we can settle the question of the important points on which we are now treating with the [United] States. This will serve to keep them devoted to us in case the States do not accept the just propositions which we are making to them”; minutes of Godoy’s reply ca. February 15, 1795, to Jaudenes’s despatch no. 250; Godoy to Carondelet, February 21, 1795, ibid., 233.
10. Bemis, Pinckney’s Treaty, 208–17. Bemis examined the document as it was deciphered in Jaudenes’s office and found “a few uncertainties about certain minor parts of the instructions, but nothing that [one] cannot puzzle out easily and clearly”; ibid., 213n.
11. Ibid., 213–17.
12. Ibid., 212–13.
13. Jaudenes to Randolph, March 25, 1795, ibid., 212–13n.
14. Randolph to Short, April 5, 1795, ibid., 270n.
15. Jaudenes to Randolph, March 25, 1795, ibid., 212–13n; for the implications of the title, see ibid., 253–54.
16. Godoy to Jaudenes, May 9, 1794, and Jaudenes to Secretary of State Edmund Randolph, August 15, 1794, ibid., 208–9. Carmichael died in Madrid on February 9, 1795, ibid., 235.
17. Randolph to Pinckney, November 28, 1794, ibid., 252.
18. Short to Nicolaas and Jacob Van Staphorst and Nicholas Hubbard, October 1, 1794; Short to Secretary of State, January 16, 1795; Bemis, Pinckney’s Treaty, 236n, 248–49n
19. Pinckney to Randolph, June 23, 1794; Bemis, Pinckney’s Treaty, 247–48n.
20. Bemis, Pinckney’s Treaty, 251, 267; Thomas Jefferson to James Monroe, July 6, 1796, quoted in Harry Ammon, James Monroe: The Quest for National Identity (New York, 1971), 114.
21. Reasonable people can disagree about the extent of Godoy’s knowledge of Jay’s Treaty. In the first edition of Pinckney’s Treaty: America’s Advantage from Europe’s Distress, 1783–1800 (Baltimore, 1926), Samuel Flagg Bemis asserted that Godoy did not see the full text of Jay’s Treaty until after the signing of Pinckney’s Treaty. Soon thereafter, Arthur P. Whitaker contended that Godoy was familiar with the terms of Jay’s Treaty in his Spanish-American Frontier, 1783–1795: The Westward Movement and the Spanish Retreat in the Mississippi Valley (Boston, 1927), 203–7, and in two supplementary journal articles (“New light on the Treaty of San Lorenzo: An Essay in Historical Criticism,” MVHR 15 [1929]: 435–54, and “Godoy’s Knowledge of the Terms of Jay’s Treaty,” AHR 35 [1929–1930]: 804–10). Bemis answered Whitaker’s objection persuasively in the second edition of Pinckney’s Treaty (New Haven, 1960), 284–93. Their contention is not over what Godoy did, but whether his fears of British retaliation and an Anglo-American alliance were reasonable. If Godoy did not have the text of Jay’s Treaty prior to signing with Pinckney (Bemis’s view), Spain’s virtual capitulation to American demands is more explicable. If Godoy knew that Jay’s Treaty did not create an Anglo-American alliance (Whitaker’s view), Spain’s action was more foolhardy. Even if he had the full text of Jay’s Treaty, however, Godoy could not have precluded the possibility of secret provisions hostile to Spain’s interests. Godoy seems to have underestimated the American commitment to neutrality, but surely the fear of a future alliance between the United States and Great Britain came reasonably to a man who contemplated an alliance with France in connection with the Treaty of Basle and then in 1796 entered a fateful Franco-Spanish alliance by the secret Treaty of San Ildefonso.
22. Minutes of the Spanish Council of State, August 14, 1795, quoted in Bemis, Pinckney’s Treaty, 274.
23. Pinckney to Short, October 25, 1795, quoted in ibid., 281n.
24. Ibid., 312.
25. Ibid.; Arthur Preston Whitaker, The Mississippi Question, 1795–1803: A Study in Trade, Politics, and Diplomacy (New York, 1934), 24, 301. See Appendix A for the entire text of Pinckney’s Treaty.
26. Kentucky Gazette, March 26, 1796.
CHAPTER ELEVEN: AFFAIRS OF LOUISIANA
1. Quoted in Spenser Wilkinson, The Rise of General Bonaparte (Oxford, 1930), 144.
2. “Essai sur les avantages a retirer [sic] de colonies nouvelles dans circonstances présentes,” Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, Historical Characters: Talleyrand, Cobbett, Mackintosh, Canning (London, 1868), 1: 456. When published in Paris in 1799, Talleyrand’s lecture was entitled Essai sur les Avantages a Tirer de Colonies Nouvelles dans Circonstances Presentes; J. F Bernard, Talleyrand: A Biography (New York, 1973), 622.
3. Robert B. Asprey, The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte (New York, 2000), 4–20.
4. Ibid., 13–20; Alan Schom, Napoleon Bonaparte (New York, 1997), 1–11; Wilkinson, Rise of General Bonaparte, 3–7.
5. Schom, Napoleon Bonaparte, 9–11.
6. Ibid., 11; Asprey, Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, 27–28, 37, 40, 47.
7. Ibid., 32, 47.
8. Guillaume-Thomas, Abbé de Raynal, Philosophical and Political History of the Settlements and Trade of the Europeans in the East and West Indies, trans. J. O. Justamond (London, 1783), 5: 309–10; C. L. R. James, The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo Revolution (2d ed., New York, 1963), 25; Martin Ros, Night of Fire: The Black Napoleon and the Battle for Haiti, trans. Karin Ford-Treep (New York, 1994), 63, 87.
9. Schom, Napoleon Bonaparte, 12–22.
10.
Ibid., 22–27; Georges Lefebvre, The French Revolution: From 1793 to 1799 (New York, 1964), 173.
11. Schom, Napoleon Bonaparte, 27–28; Evangeline Bruce, Napoleon and Josephine: An Improbable Marriage (New York, 1995), 140–49, 162–63.
12. Bruce, Napoleon and Josephine, 163.
13. Schom, Napoleon Bonaparte, 35.
14. Ibid., 200.
15. Ibid., 48; Asprey, Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, 253.
16. The aptly named anarchist Gracchus Babeuf is quoted in Schom, Napoleon Bonaparte, 200.
17. Asprey, Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, 325.
18. Schom, Napoleon Bonaparte, 203–4.
19. Asprey, Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, 343; Schom, Napoleon Bonaparte, 235.
20. Asprey, Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, 245, 247. Napoleon enjoyed the company of women in society and the boudoir, but avoided the influential salons that many politicians frequented.
21. J. F Bernard, Talleyrand: A Biography (New York, 1973), 173; Lefebvre, French Revolution: From 1793 to 1799, 291–92. The modern Institut de France comprises five learned societies: L’Académie Française (founded in 1635 by Cardinal Richelieu to standardize the French language) with forty members; L’Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres (organized in 1663 for the study of antiquities, numismatics, and languages) with forty-five members; L’Académie des Sciences (created in 1666 to promote mathematics and physical sciences) with one hundred thirty members; L’Académie des Beaux-Arts (established in 1648 for the fine arts) with fifty members; and L’Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques (founded with the Institut de France in 1795) with fifty members in the fields of history and geography, law and jurisprudence, morals, philosophy, and political economy.
22. Bernard, Talleyrand, 173–77; Doina Harsanyi, “A Second Chance: Talleyrand’s Approach to Power During the Directory,” paper presented at the annual meeting of the Southern Historical Association, Birmingham, Ala., November 13, 1998. Talleyrand’s lectures—“Essai sur les avantages à retirer [sic] de colonies nouvelles dans circonstances présentes” and “Mémoires sur les relations commerciales des Etats-Unis avec l’Angleterre”—are printed in Sir Henry Lytton Bulwer, Historical Characters: Talleyrand, Cobbett, Mackintosh, Canning (London, 1868), 1: 451–81, from the manuscripts at the Institut de France; I am indebted to Doina Harsanyi for this information.
23. Harsanyi, “A Second Chance,” 7; Talleyrand’s lectures in Bulwer, Historical Characters, 453.
24. Harsanyi, “A Second Chance,” 6–7; Talleyrand’s lectures in Bulwer, Historical Characters, 480–81.
25. Ibid., 456–57; Harsanyi, “A Second Chance,” 8.
26. Talleyrand’s lectures in Bulwer, Historical Characters, 461. Talleyrand mentioned three authorities by name in the two lectures: Machiavelli, Montesquieu, and Choiseul.
27. Diplomatic Correspondence of the United States of America, from the Signing of the Definitive Treaty of Peace, 10th September, 1783, to the Adoption of the Constitution, March 4, 1789 (Washington, D.C., 1855), 1: 241; William Blount to Richard Caswell, January 28, 1787, Letters of Delegates, 24: 75.
28. Alexander DeConde, This Affair of Louisiana (New York, 1976), 76–78; E. Wilson Lyon, “Moustier’s Memoir on Louisiana,” MVHR 22 (1935–1936): 251–66; Lyon, Louisiana in French Diplomacy, 1789–1804 (Norman, Okla., 1934), 60–66.
29. The discomfort occasioned by Moustier’s odd behavior, offensive table manners, and dubious relationship with his sister-in-law and companion Madame de Bréhan are summarized in Dumas Malone, Jefferson and the Rights of Man (Boston, 1951), 197–98.
30. Lyon, “Moustier’s Memoir,” 253; DeConde, This Affair of Louisiana, 79–80.
31. Gilbert C. Din, “‘For Defense of Country and the Glory of Arms’: Army Officers in Spanish Louisiana, 1766–1803,” LH 43 (2002): 6.
32. DeConde, This Affair of Louisiana, 80–81.
33. Stuart Gerry Brown, ed., The Autobiography of James Monroe (Syracuse, 1959), 136–37.
34. New York Herald article reprinted in the New Hampshire and Vermont Journal: Or the Farmer’s Weekly Museum of Walpole, New Hampshire, September 6, 1796, quoted in DeConde, This Affair of Louisiana, 81.
35. Pickering to King, February 15 and June 20, 1797, quoted in DeConde, This Affair of Louisiana, 84–85.
36. Carondelet, Military Report on Louisiana and West Florida, November 24, 1794, in Robertson, Louisiana, 1: 298–99; Abraham Steiner and Frederick C. De Schweinitz, 1799, and Knoxville Gazette, May 22, 1795, and February 11, 1794, quoted in Charles H. Faulkner, “‘Here Are Frame Houses and Brick Chimneys’: Knoxville, Tennessee, in the Late Eighteenth Century,” in David Colin Crass, Steven D. Smith, Martha A. Zierden, and Richard D. Brooks, eds., The Southern Colonial Backcountry: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Frontier Communities (Knoxville, 1998), 139, 142; Edward A. Chappell, “Housing a Nation: The Transformation of Living Standards in Early America,” in Cary Carson, Ronald Hoffman, and Peter J. Albert, eds., Of Consuming Interests: The Style of Life in the Eighteenth-Century (Charlottesville, 1994), 167–232; Elizabeth A. Perkins, “The Consumer Frontier: Household Consumption in Early Kentucky,” JAH 78 (1991–1992): 486–510.
37. Talleyrand’s lectures in Bulwer, Historical Characters, 466–68, quotation at 474; Francois Michaux quoted in Perkins, “The Consumer Frontier,” 499.
38. Lewis E. Atherton, The Frontier Merchant in Mid-America (Columbia, Mo., 1971), 82; Perkins, “The Consumer Frontier,” 510. Sturdy Conestoga wagons originated in eastern Pennsylvania early in the eighteenth century, were generally drawn by six horses, and could carry almost eight tons of freight. The lighter prairie schooner was adapted from common farm wagons later in the nineteenth century and was usually pulled by two or four horses or oxen.
39. Perkins, “The Consumer Frontier,” 493; John Wesley Hunt’s wagon inventories for Mathias Vankirk, John Hack, William Graham, Elisha Phipps, and Minshal Williams, October 26–29, 1795, are among five boxes of uncalendared papers, 1784–1811, in the Hunt-Morgan Family Papers, 63 M 202, University of Kentucky, Lexington. I am grateful to archivist Claire McCann for bringing these papers to my attention.
40. Two-page dry goods inventory, ca. 1800, Hunt-Morgan Papers, University of Kentucky; Francois Michaux quoted in Perkins, “The Consumer Frontier,” 502; export figures from the Kentucky Gazette, May 18, 1801, ibid., 507.
41. Invoice from the Pittsburgh Glass Works, July 14, 1800, invoice “No. 19” from Mathew Carey, May 22, 1795, Hunt-Morgan Papers; Mary Wollstonecraft, A Vindication of the Rights of Woman; with Strictures on Political and Moral Subjects (London, Dublin, and Boston, 1792), quoted Talleyrand’s observation “that to see one half of the human race excluded by the other from all participation in government, was a political phaenomenon that, according to abstract principles, it was impossible to explain.”
42. James A. Ramage, John Wesley Hunt: Pioneer Merchant, Manufacturer, and Financier (Lexington, Ky, 1974), 41–55, 72–73; Charles P. Stanton, Blue-grass Pioneers: A Chronicle of the Hunt and Morgan Families of Lexington, Kentucky (2d ed., Brooklyn, N.Y., 1989), 6–15; Hunt-Morgan Papers, University of Kentucky, passim; John Wesley Hunt Papers, 1792–1849, Filson Club, Louisville, Kentucky.
43. Perkins, “The Consumer Frontier,” 506; John G. Clark, New Orleans, 1718–1812: An Economic History (Baton Rouge, 1970), 213–14; Robertson, Louisiana, 298–99.
44. Bernard, Talleyrand, 177–227; Isser Woloch, Napoleon and His Collaborators: The Making of a Dictatorship (New York, 2001), 9–35.
45. George Rude, The Crowd in the French Revolution (New York, 1959), 95–98; Sidney W. Mintz, Sweetness and Power: The Place of Sugar in Modern History (New York, 1985), 108–26.
46. Robert Louis Stein, The French Sugar Business in the Eighteenth Century (Baton Rouge, 1985), ix-x, 166–67.
47. Lyon, “Moustier’s Memoir,” 251–66; Lyon, Louisiana in French Diplomacy, 79–98.
48. Urquijo was chief minister from March 1798 through December 1800, when Manuel Godoy returned
as the power behind the throne; Douglas Hilt, The Troubled Trinity: Godoy and the Spanish Monarchs (Tuscaloosa, 1987), 71–94, 112–18.
49. Urquijo to the marquis de Musquiz, June 22, 1800, quoted in Lyon, Louisiana in French Diplomacy, 104.
50. Lyon, Louisiana in French Diplomacy, 104–10.
51. Ibid., 107–9.
52. Schom, Napoleon Bonaparte, 303–32; Lyon, Louisiana in French Diplomacy, 108–11.
53. Francois Barbé-Marbois, The History of Louisiana; Particularly of the Cession of That Colony to the United States of America, reprint of the 1830 Philadelphia edition with an introduction by E. Wilson Lyon (Baton Rouge, 1977), 200.
CHAPTER TWELVE: THE EMBRYO OF A TORNADO
1. John Stevens Cabot Abbott, Napoleon at St. Helena; or, Interesting Anecdotes and Remarkable Conversations of the Emperor During the Five and a Half Years of His Captivity (New York, 1855), 259, 592–93.
2. State Papers and Correspondence, 16.
3. William Vans Murray to John Quincy Adams, March 30, 1801, in Worthington C. Ford, ed., “Letters of William Vans Murray to John Quincy Adams, Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the Year 1912 (Washington, D.C., 1914), 693; Peter P. Hill, William Vans Murray, Federalist Diplomat: The Shaping of Peace with France, 1797–1801 (Syracuse, 1971).
4. Douglas Hilt, The Troubled Trinity: Godoy and the Spanish Monarchs (Tuscaloosa, 1987), 117–19.
5. E. Wilson Lyon, Louisiana in French Diplomacy, 1789–1804 (Norman, Okla., 1934), 123–25.
6. Evangeline Bruce, Napoleon and Josephine: An Improbable Marriage (New York, 1995), 192, 345; Jean Savant, Napoleon in His Time (New York, 1958), 157–58; Desmond Seward, Napoleon’s Family (London, 1986), 57–59.
7. Savant, Napoleon in His Time, 158; Alan Schom, Napoleon Bonaparte (New York, 1997), 342–43.
8. Alexander DeConde, This Affair of Louisiana (New York, 1976), 100; Martin Ros, Night of Fire: The Black Napoleon and the Battle for Haiti, trans. Karin Ford-Treep (New York, 1994), 156; Leclerc’s instructions were dated October 31, 1801, Carl Ludwig Lokke, “The Leclerc Instructions,” Journal of Negro History 10 (1925): 80–98; Jon Kukla, ed., A Guide to the Tapers of Pierre Clement Laussat, Napoleon’s Prefect for the Colony of Louisiana, and of General Claude Perrin Victor (New Orleans, 1993), 159–63. Estimates of the initial strength of Leclerc’s forces vary; Robert L. Paquette, “Revolutionary Saint Domingue in the Making of Territorial Louisiana,” in David Barry Gaspar and David Patrick Geggus, eds., A Turbulent Time: The French Revolution and the Greater Caribbean (Bloomington, Ind., 1997), 204–25.