10 New Light on Drake, ed. Nuttall, p. 171; Fernández de Navarrete, Biblioteca Maritima Española, I, 596. Gonzalo de Palma went on to become Governor of Costa Rica in the 1590s: Fernández Guardia, Cartilla Histórica de Costa Rica, p. 152.
11 Voyages: The Trans–Atlantic Slave Trade Database; Wheat, Atlantic Africa and the Spanish Caribbean, pp. 5, 12. See also Thornton, Africa and Africans in the Making of the Atlantic World, pp. 162–182.
12 Kelsey, Sir Francis Drake, p. 53.
13 Much of the following account is taken from the 1628 edition of Nichols, Sir Francis Drake Revived reproduced in Documents Concerning English Voyages to the Spanish Main 1569–1580, ed. Wright, p. 246–326.
14 Wright, Documents Concerning English Voyages to the Spanish Main, 1569–1580, Wright, (ed.) p. 265, n. 1
15 Ibid., pp. 258–9, 264–5; Kelsey, Sir Francis Drake, pp. 51, 55. See also Smith, Black Africans in the British Imagination, p. 66–8.
16 New Light on Drake, ed. Nuttall, p. 302. For a brief biography of Nichols, see Quinn, Explorers and Colonies, pp. 193–4. For discussion of Drake’s personal input into the text, see Smith, Black Africans in the British Imagination, pp. 61–3.
17 Cambridge University Library, G.R.G Conway Collection, Add. MSS, 7231, ff. 2, 157–8, 339–40.
18 Further English Voyages to Spanish America, 1583–1594, ed. Wright, pp. 188–9; Sweet, Recreating Africa, pp. 94–5; ANTT, Inquisição de Lisboa, Processos, no. 5964: http://digitarq.dgarq.gov.pt/viewer?id=2306003 In around 1565 Pedro Menendez de Aviles, the first Governor of Florida, had warned Philip II that because neither England nor France then allowed slavery, any corsair might, with a few thousand men, take over all Spain’s possessions by freeing and arming the grateful slaves, who would then slay their Spanish masters: Landers, Black Society in Spanish Florida, p. 17.
19 Documents Concerning English Voyages to the Spanish Main 1569–1580, ed. Wright, pp. 260–267.
20 Pike, ‘Black Rebels’, p.254. The original source says 16 leagues; I have converted it to miles. 1 league =3 miles, so 48 miles.
21 Price, Maroon Societies, p. xviii.
22 Wright, Documents concerning English Voyages to the Spanish Main 1569–1580, Wright, (ed.) pp. xix, 10, 72; Andrews, The Spanish Caribbean, p. 20. The first Cimarron attacks in Panama were in 1525: Pike, ‘Black Rebels’, p. 245.
23 Wright, Documents concerning English Voyages to the Spanish Main 1569–1580, Wright, (ed.) p. 269.
24 In 1773, David Henry had it that Drake targeted Cartagena on Diego’s advice: Henry, An historical account of all the voyages round the world, performed by English navigators, I, 18: ‘But Drake, not to be diverted from his purpose, after being cured of his wound, inquired of a negroe, whom he took on board at Nombre de Dios, the most wealthy settlements, and weakest parts of the coast. This man recommended Carthagena as the most wealthy, and, being the most powerful, the least upon its guard. The Admiral seemed to approve the man’s notion.’
25 Documents concerning English Voyages to the Spanish Main 1569–1580, ed. Wright, pp. 278–281. For a discussion of Diego’s negotiating strategy see Smith, Black Africans in the British Imagination, p. 70.
26 Sugden, Sir Francis Drake, p. 63; Henry An historical account of all the voyages round the world, performed by English navigators, I, p. 24.
27 Documents concerning English Voyages to the Spanish Main 1569–1580, ed. Wright, p. 283.
28 Ibid, p. 297 and Smith, Black Africans in the British Imagination, pp. 3–7 for discussion of significance of this moment.
29 Documents concerning English Voyages to the Spanish Main 1569–1580, ed. Wright, p. 298.
30 Ibid., pp. 303–4.
31 Ibid., pp. 305–310; Sugden, Sir Francis Drake, pp. 68–70; Kelsey, Sir Francis Drake, pp. 62–3.
32 Documents concerning English Voyages to the Spanish Main 1569–1580, ed. Wright, p. 311.
33 ‘Le Testu, Guillaume (c. 1509–1573)’ in The Oxford Companion to World Exploration, ed. Buisseret, I, p. 469. Pike, ‘Black Rebels’, p. 258, Smith, Black Africans in the British Imagination, pp. 73–4.
34 Documents concerning English Voyages to the Spanish Main 1569–1580, ed. Wright, pp. 73, 318–319.
35 Ibid., pp. 316, 324. Smith, ‘Washing the Ethiop Red: Sir Francis Drake and the Cimarrons of Panama’, pp. 17–18 and Black Africans in the British Imagination, pp. 72–3.
36 The Drake Jewel, 1588, Collection of Sir George Meyrick, on loan to Victoria and Albert Museum, London; Scarisbrick, Tudor and Jacobean Jewellery, pp. 84–86; Marcus Gheeraerts, ‘Sir Francis Drake, 1540–1596’, National Maritime Museum, Greenwich, London, Caird Collection, BHC2662.
37 Fumerton, Cultural Aesthetics, p. 75; Dalton, ‘Art for the Sake of Dynasty,’ pp. 178–214; Hall, Things of Darkness, p. 222; Shields, D.S., ‘The Drake Jewel’ Uncommon Sense.
38 Baskerville’s was a draft letter to Burghley: BL Harley MS 4762, ff. 10–11, quoted in Andrews, The Last Voyage of Drake and Hawkins, Andrews, (ed.) p. 256. See also ibid., p. 212 and Pike, ‘Black Rebels’ pp. 265–6. Not all English encounters with the Cimarrons went well; when John Oxenham, one of Drake’s crew in 1573, returned to Panama in 1575, they fell out and the English were captured and executed by the Spanish: Documents concerning English Voyages to the Spanish Main 1569–1580, ed. Wright, pp. 327–331. Smith, Black Africans in the British Imagination, pp. 82–3.
39 Ibid., pp. 85–90; Boyer, ‘Gage, Thomas (1603?–1656)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Davenant, The History of Sir Francis Drake (1659), p. 12.
40 Documents concerning English Voyages to the Spanish Main 1569–1580, ed. Wright, p. 326; Worth, The History of Plymouth, pp. 39–62.
41 Hawkins in Guinea, 1567–1568, ed. Hair, pp. 16–17; Kelsey, Sir John Hawkins, p. 320, n. 11 citing testimonies of Robert Barrett, 8 October 1569; Michael Sole, 26 November 1569; Walter Jones, 6 December 1569; Juan Truslon, 6 December 1569 in AGI Patronato 265, ramo 11, f. 16; AGI Justicia, 902, pp. 343, 984, 1006.
42 TNA, SP 12/53 (Testimony of John Tonnes, July 1569); Kelsey, Sir John Hawkins, p. 99; Hair, ‘Protestants as Pirates, Slavers and Proto–missionaries’, p. 220; PWDRO 358/6 MF1; St Andrews’s Parish Register, ed. Cruwys, p. 292; Bastien may also have come to Plymouth as a result of William Hawkins’s voyage of 1582–3 on the Primrose to the Caribbean, which seems to have captured some Africans on the Cape Verde islands: Voyages: The Trans–Atlantic Slave Trade Database, Voyage 98853; Further English Voyages to Spanish America, 1583–1594, ed. Wright, pp. 1–7; Kelsey, Sir John Hawkins, pp. 163–4.
43 Gill, ‘Drake and Plymouth’, p.84; Kelsey, Sir Francis Drake, pp. 44, 68; Sugden, Sir Francis Drake, pp. 43–44, 162.
44 Essex to Burghley, 23 June 1574: Lee, ‘Devereux, Walter (1541?–1576)’, The Dictionary of National Biography, XIV, p. 444.
45 Kelsey, Sir Francis Drake, pp. 7–74; Sugden, Sir Francis Drake, pp. 84–6; Ronald, Pirate Queen, pp. 190–196.
46 John Wynter was the nephew of Sir William Wynter, and cousin of Sir Edward Wynter, who we will meet in the next chapter. Kelsey, Sir Francis Drake, p. 445, n. 62.
47 Ibid., p. 141. For the language skills of English sailors at this time see Blakemore, ‘Orality and Mutiny’, pp. 257–8.
48 The Troublesome Voyage of Sir Edward Fenton, ed. Taylor, p. 147; An Elizabethan in 1582: The Diary of Richard Madox, ed. Donno, pp. 201, 250, 319, 330.
49 Ralegh, The Discoverie of the Large, Rich, and Beautiful Empire of Guiana, p. 48. Some, unware perhaps of the wider evidence for African sailors aboard Tudor ships, have questioned whether this passage refers to a real African or a literary trope: Smith, Black Africans in the British Imagination pp. 158, 211, n. 40. 40–42.
50 Guasco, ‘Free from the tyrannous Spanyard’, pp. 8–9.
51 Drake’s West Indian Voyage, 1585–6, ed. Frear Keeler, p. 189.
52 Hakluyt, XI, p. 222; Purchas, Hakluytus Posthumus, or Purchas his Pilgrims, XVI, p. 102–3.
53 Kelsey, Sir Francis
Drake, pp. 93–97.
54 New Light on Drake, ed. Nuttall, p. 302.
55 Kelsey, Sir Francis Drake, pp. 137–8 and pp. 113–115 on re-naming of the ship.
56 The World Encompassed by Sir Francis Drake, ed. Vaux, pp. 93–95, 97–99, 179.
57 Ibid., p. 95, 98.
58 The observations of Sir Richard Hawkins, Knt. in his voyage into the South Sea in the year 1593, ed. Drinkwater Bethune, p. 144.
59 New Light on Drake, ed. Nuttall, p. 44.
60 BL, Harley MS 280, f. 83 (anonymous contemporary narrative of Drake’s voyage, see n. 85 below).
61 The World Encompassed by Sir Francis Drake, ed. Vaux, pp. 95, 98–99.
62 Clowes, A profitable and necessarie booke of obseruations, pp. 22–28; Murray, ‘Clowes, William (1543/4–1604)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Childs, Tudor Sea Power: The Foundation of Greatness, pp. 124–5; Dunglison, Medical Lexicon, p. 25.
63 The World Encompassed by Sir Francis Drake, ed. Vaux, p. 99.
64 Morgan, ‘Hawkins, Sir John (1532–1595)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
65 BL, Harley MS 280, f. 83. The marginal note is not published in the transcription in The World Encompassed by Sir Francis Drake, ed. Vaux, p. 179, which may have misled some scholars.
66 Price, The Vitamin Complex, pp. 3–4; Bown, Scurvy, pp. 3, 5, 34.
67 The ship left Guatulco on 16 April 1579. New Light on Drake, ed. Nuttall, pp. 31, 302.
68 McKee, The Queen’s Corsair, p. 232.
69 New Light on Drake, ed. Nuttall, p. 199–210; The World Encompassed by Sir Francis Drake, ed. Vaux, pp. 182–3; BL, Harley MS 280, ff. 86–86v.
70 Giraldez, The Age of Trade, pp. 120, 145.
71 Camden, Annales, tr. Darcie, p. 424; BL, Harley MS 280, ff. 86–86v; New Light on Drake, ed. Nuttall, p. 31 (John Drake) and p. 250, 269 (de Silva). In 1553, the viceroy Luis de Velasco estimated Mexico’s African population at more than 20,000, including about 2,000 Maroons. Maria was likely to have been from Cape Verde or Senegambia, like 90 per cent of slaves entering Mexico in the mid–sixteenth century. Landers and Robinson, Slaves, Subjects, and Subversives, pp. 118–9.
72 New Light on Drake, ed. Nuttall, pp. 29, 138–40, 171, 174, 262; The World Encompassed by Sir Francis Drake, ed. Vaux, p. 265. Kelsey, Sir Francis Drake, p. 153–6.
73 New Light on Drake, ed. Nuttall, p. 338, 325, 336, 354–5.
74 Hanmer, The Baptizing of a Turke, sig. E3r–3v. See also Dimmock, ‘Converting and not converting “Strangers” in Early Modern London’, pp. 457–478, and further discussion in Chapter 6.
75 New Light on Drake, ed. Nuttall, pp. 105–106.
76 Kelsey, ‘Drake, Sir Francis (1540–1596)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
77 McKee, The Queen’s Corsair, pp. 198–212.
78 New Light on Drake, ed. Nuttall, pp. 100–2, 124.
79 The Cimarrons of Portobello and Cerro de Cabra surrendered in 1579; those of the Vallano in 1582, so Valverde may be exaggerating. Pike, ‘Black Rebels’, pp. 262–4.
80 New Light on Drake, ed. Nuttall, pp. 253, 317–9.
81 The World Encompassed by Sir Francis Drake, ed. Vaux, p. 243, 183.
82 According to John Drake: New Light on Drake, ed. Nuttall, p. 31. He is contradicted by the author of the anonymous voyage account who says the two men (besides Diego) were from Guatulco: BL, Harley MS 280, ff. 87v.
83 BL, Harley MS 280, f. 86v.
84 Kelsey, p.167; The anonymous narrative is BL, Harley MS 280, ff. 83–90. J.S. Corbett attributed this account to the ship’s steward William Legge in 1898 because it includes details of a falling out between Legge and Drake, but this cannot be certainly proven: Drake and the Tudor Navy, II, p. 407.
85 Sudgen, Sir Francis Drake, pp. 129, 141; BL, Harley MS 280, f. 87v.
86 British Medical Association Family Health Guide, pp. 732–733.
87 The World Encompassed by Sir Francis Drake, ed. Vaux, p. 213.
88 Ibid., pp. 14–15.
89 Kelsey, Sir Francis Drake, p. 170.
90 Huntington Library, California, HM 1648, f. 20v.
91 Woodes Rogers, A Cruising Voyage Round the World, pp. 278–279.
92 Henry R. Wagner took Hawkins’s remarks to mean that Diego, like Brewer, made it back to England: Wagner, Sir Francis Drake’s Voyage Around the World, pp. 265, 364.
93 Kelsey, The First Circumnavigators, pp. 13, 21; Sugden, Sir Francis Drake, p. 61 refers to Diego as ‘possibly the first black circumnavigator’.
94 Camden, Annales, tr. Darcie, p. 426.
95 BL, Harley MS 280, f. 86v.
96 Lessa, ‘Drake in the South Seas’, pp. 71, 73.
97 BL, Harley MS 280, f. 87v. The printed version of the account transcribes the amended version – it has the island named after one of the two African men: The World Encompassed by Sir Francis Drake, ed. Vaux, p. 184.
98 BL, Harley MS 280, f. 86v, New Light on Drake, ed. Nuttall, p. 31.
99 Kelsey, Sir Francis Drake, p. 201.
100 New Light on Drake, ed. Nuttall, pp. 18–21; McDermott, ‘Fenton, Edward (d. 1603)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
101 New Light on Drake, ed. Nuttall, p. 32.
102 The World Encompassed by Sir Francis Drake, ed. Vaux, pp. 148–50.
103 New Light on Drake, ed. Nuttall, pp. 32, 53.
104 Shakespeare, The Tempest, Act 1, Scene 2.
105 Kelsey, Sir Francis Drake, p. 201, comments on the tendency to ‘gloss over or skip entirely’ this episode. Sudgen, Sir Francis Drake, p. 141, certainly tries to put as positive a spin on it as possible, writing: ‘the island had been pleasing and it is possible that the Negroes elected to remain there’.
106 Corbett, Drake and the Tudor Navy, II, p. 407. The dissatisfied seaman he had in mind was the ship’s steward William Legge, see n. 85 above.
Chapter 4
1 William Blake, ‘Flagellation of a Female Samboe Slave’: a plate facing p. 326 of the first volume of J. G. Stedman’s Narrative of a five years’ expedition against the revolted slaves of Surinam (London 1796) – discussed and reproduced in Wood, Blind Memory, pp. 234–239 (Fig 5.6, p. 237); Klein, C., ‘This viral photo changed America in 1863’, The Boston Globe.
2 Much of the following account is taken from the papers relating to the 1597 Court of Star Chamber case of Bucke v. Wynter, kept at The National Archives, Kew, refs: TNA: STAC 5 B11/13; STAC 5/B38/11; STAC 5/B20/36; STAC 5/B37/4; STAC 5/B22/33; STAC 5 B35/22; STAC 5 B45/4.
3 A. P. Baggs and A. R. J. Jurica, ‘Lydney’, in A History of the County of Gloucester: Volume 5, Bledisloe Hundred, St. Briavels Hundred, the Forest of Dean, ed. C. R. J. Currie and N. M. Herbert (London, 1996), pp. 46–84. British History Online http://www.british-history.ac.uk/vch/glos/vol5/pp46-84 [accessed 31 March 2017].
4 There is now a secondary school on the site, The Dean Academy (known as Whitecross School until 2012).
5 Loades, ‘Winter, Sir William (c.1525–1589)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Waters, The Forest of Dean (1951); Calendar of State Papers, Scotland, ed. Bain, I, p. 435 (William Cecil, Lord Burghley, to the Privy Council, 26 June 1560). John Wynter was the son of George Wynter, Sir William Wynter’s brother, and so cousin of Sir Edward Wynter. Kelsey, Sir Francis Drake, p. 445, n. 62.
6 Simpson, Burning to Read, p. 268. See also Childs, God’s Traitors.
7 ‘Middlesex Sessions Rolls: 1615’, in Middlesex county records: Volume 2: 1603–25 John Cordy (ed.) Jeafrreson (London, 1887), pp. 107–119. British History Online http://www.british–history.ac.uk/middx-county-records/vol2/pp107-119 (Accessed 11 April 2017) Heal and Holmes, The Gentry in England and Wales, pp. 146–150.
8 Payne, ‘Hakluyt, Richard (1552?–1616)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Hakluyt described his lectures in the Dedicatory Epistle to Walsingham which prefaced the first edition of his Principal Navigations (1589), sig *2r; Richard Hakluyt the elder, ‘Inducements to the Liking of the Voyage Intended Towa
rds Virginia’ (1585), in The Original Writings and Correspondence of the Two Richard Hakluyts, ed. Taylor, II, p. 332. For a vivid account of Hakluyt’s visit to Middle Temple in 1568, see Mancall, Hakluyt’s Promise, Chapter 2. The Bible passage was from Psalm 107, verses 23 and 24.
9 A Report of the Kingdome of Congo drawen out of the writinges and discourses of O. Lopez, tr. A. Hartwell, ‘The Translator to the Reader’. Samuel, ‘Lopez, Roderigo (c. 1517–1594)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; see also Green, The Double Life of Doctor Lopez.
10 Pliny the Elder, Natural History, VIII:17:42. That he had ‘seen above twenty men at one time together with heads like dogs’ was the boast of John James, a nephew of William Sanderson, who sent him to deliver a map of the West Indies, and a ‘terrestrial globe’, with an instruction book in Latin to Sir Robert Cecil in September 1595: Skelton, and Summerson, A Description of Maps and Architectural Drawings in the Collection Made by William Cecil, p. 6; Shakespeare, Othello, Act 1, Scene 3. Kaufmann, ‘Prester John’ pp. 423–424, Alvarez, The Prester John of the Indies, tr. Lord Stanley, ed. Beckingham and Huntingford; Silverberg, The Realm of Prester John; Gumilev, Searches for an Imaginary Kingdom: The Legend of the Kingdom of Prester John; Relaño, The Shaping of Africa: cosmographic discourse and cartographic science in late medieval and early modern Europe; Braude, ‘The sons of Noah and the construction of ethnic and geographical identities in the medieval and early modern periods’, pp. 103–42. Ohajuru, M., ‘The Black Magus [King, Magi] (c 1350–)’, BlackPast.org, http://www.blackpast.org/gah/black-magus-c-1350; Kaplan, The Rise of the Black Magus in Western Art; Devisse, ‘The Black and his Color’, in The Image of the Black in Western Art, ed. Bindman, Gates & Dalton, II, 1, pp. 119–128; Koerner, ‘The Epiphany of the Black Magus Circa 1500’ in The Image of the Black in Western Art, ed. Bindman and Gates, III, 1, pp. 7–92.
11 For a detailed account of the voyage see Kelsey, Sir Francis Drake, pp. 240–279; for the original sources see: Sir Francis Drake’s West Indian Voyage, 1585–6, ed. Frear Keeler. These two books furnish much of the detail in the following account.
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