11 Plummer, Roads to Ruin, p. 82.
12 For a family tree of the Sa’adian dynasty at this time see The Stukeley Plays, ed. Edelman, p. 11.
13 Plummer, Roads to Ruin, pp. 315, 332, 334.
14 Ibid., pp. 323, 364–366, 368–9, 379, 383.
15 Brotton, This Orient Isle, p. 175; Kaba, ‘Archers, Musketeers, and Mosquitoes: The Moroccan Invasion of the Sudan and the Songhay Resistance’, pp. 457–475.
16 Plummer, Roads to Ruin, p. 391.
17 Ibid., pp. 139–144; Johnson, Dois Estudos Polemicos, pp. 85–99; Johnson, ‘A Pedophile in the Palace’; Johnson, ‘Through a glass darkly: A Disappointing New Biography of King Sebastian of Portugal’; Sebastian, King of Portugal: Four Essays; Johnson’s theory has been called ‘extravagant’ by Sebastian’s Portuguese biographer Maria Augusta Lima Cruz, though it is given credence by Plummer.
18 Plummer, Roads to Ruin, pp. 287, 375.
19 Barker was a director of the Spanish Company in 1577: Rabb, Enterprise and Empire, p. 240.
20 Registers of St Olave, Hart St., ed. Bannerman, pp. 11, 122; Two Tudor Subsidy Rolls For the City of London 1541 and 1582, ed. Lang, pp. 278–289; ‘Barker, John, I (c. 1532–1589) of Ipswich, Suff.’, The History of Parliament.
21 TNA, SP 46/185 (Papers of George Stoddard, Grocer, 1553–1568) See also Hall, Society in the Elizabethan Age, pp. 48–57, 159.
22 TNA, PROB 11/116/270 (Will of Anne Barker, Widow, of Saint Catherine Coleman, City of London, 28 August 1610).
23 Returns of Strangers in the Metropolis, ed. Scoloudi, p. 197.
24 LMA, MS 028867 (St Olave, Hart Street, 23 January 1595).
25 Household Accounts and Disbursement Books of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, ed. Adams, p. 478; ‘Barker, John, I (c. 1532–1589) of Ipswich, Suff.’, The History of Parliament; Queen Elizabeth and Her Times: A Series of Original Letters, ed. Wright, II, pp. 83–85, 295, 336. The original letter of 10th April 1578 is BL, Cotton MS, Vespasian C VII, f. 371. The collection also includes two other letters from Barker to Leicester, at ff. 362 (28th April 1578) & 373 (12th April 1578). All three are written from St Lucar de Barrameda, a port to the north of Cadiz.
26 Household Accounts and Disbursement Books of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, ed. Adams, p. 178, n. 364.
27 Willan, Studies in Elizabethan Foreign Trade, p. 185; Hakluyt, VI, 419–425.
28 Household Accounts and Disbursement Books of Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, ed. Adams, p. 280; TNA, SP 102/4, 54; Moore, ‘Roberts, Henry (fl. 1585–1617)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; Willan, Studies in Elizabethan Foreign Trade, p. 225.
29 Hakluyt, VI, pp. 136–137. This was not the first contact. The Trinity of Bristol had voyaged to Morocco in 1480–1, and Roger Barlow went to Agadir early in his career: Sacks, The Widening Gate: Bristol and the Atlantic Economy, p. 34; Reddaway and Ruddock, The Accounts of John Balsall, Reddaway and Ruddock (eds) pp. 1–29; Dalton, ‘Barlow, Roger (c.1483–1553)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. The merchant investors included William Chester, William Garrard, Thomas Lodge, Sir John Yorke, Sir Thomas Wroth, Francis Lambert and Alexander Cole: Alsop, ‘Chester, Sir William (c.1509–1595?)’, Miller, ‘Garrard, Sir William (c.1510–1571)’, McConnell, ‘Lodge, Sir Thomas (1509/10–1585)’, Elzinga, ‘York, Sir John (d. 1569)’, Lehmberg, ‘Wroth, Sir Thomas (1518?–1573)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
30 Willan, Studies in Elizabethan Foreign Trade, p. 99; Tong, ‘Captain Thomas Wyndham’, p. 224; Hakluyt, VI, 138–40.
31 Read, ‘English Foreign Trade Under Elizabeth’, p. 518.
32 Willan, Studies in Elizabethan Foreign Trade, p. 95; Andrews, Trade, plunder and Settlement, pp. 7–9; Brenner, Merchants and Revolution, pp. 12–13.
33 Willan, Studies in Elizabethan Foreign Trade, pp. 101–104, 133–5; Shepard, ‘White, Sir Thomas (1495?–1567)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. The first two ventures to Barbary are recorded by Hakluyt, but as he was concerned with voyages of discovery, once the trade became established, it disappeared from his pages.
34 Plummer, Roads to Ruin, p. 267; Ronald, The Pirate Queen, p.199.
35 Willan, Studies in Elizabethan Foreign Trade, pp. 93–4; ‘Spain: August 1551’, in Calendar of State Papers, Spain, Volume 10, 1550–1552, ed. Royall Tyler (London, 1914), pp. 341–348. British History Online http://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/spain/vol10/pp341-348 [accessed 1 April 2017].
36 ‘Simancas: June 1574’, in Calendar of State Papers, Spain (Simancas), Volume 2, 1568–1579, ed. Martin A. S. Hume (London, 1894), pp. 482–483. British History Online http://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/simancas/vol2/pp482-483 [accessed 1 April 2017].
37 Plummer, Roads to Ruin, p. 390.
38 Henry Roberts writing to James I in 1603, quoted in Matar, Britain and Barbary, p. 40.
39 Hakluyt, VI, 285–293; Brotton, This Orient Isle, pp. 71–76, 118–9.
40 BL, Lansdowne MS 115, f. 196. One of Barker’s ships, laden with rye, was taken by the Spanish near Dunkirk that December: ‘Elizabeth: December 1586, 26–31’, in Calendar of State Papers Foreign: Elizabeth, Volume 21, Part 2, June 1586–March 1587, ed. Sophie Crawford Lomas and Allen B. Hinds (London, 1927), pp. 287–305. British History Online http://www.british-history.ac.uk/cal-state-papers/foreign/vol21/no2/pp287-305 [accessed 1 April 2017].
41 Rabb, Enterprise and Empire, p. 66.
42 Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering, pp. 4, 32.
43 This observation was made in the draft proclamation probably authored by Caspar Van Senden and Sir Thomas Sherley: Hatfield, Cecil Papers 91/15; Calendar of the Manuscripts of the Most Honourable the Marquess of Salisbury, ed. Owen, XI, p. 569; Tudor Royal Proclamations, ed. Hughes and Larkin, III, pp. 221–222; see also Chapter 4, p. 125 and discussion later in this chapter pp. 183–184; for statistics showing numbers of Africans recorded in England did indeed peak 1588–1604 see Kaufmann, ‘Africans in Britain’, p. 121.
44 TNA, SP 12/218/14, f. 25; CSPD, 1581–1590, p. 558.
45 TNA, HCA 13/29, ff. 40–1 (13 March 1591).
46 Letter from Antonio Fogaza to the Prince Ruy Gomez De Silva: CSPS, 1568–1579, p. 352. The Castle of Comfort was a prolific privateering ship, of 200 tons’ burden. Sir Henry Compton had acquired it in 1569. In 1571, she had set out for Morocco under the command of John Garrett of Plymouth. In 1574, she was bought by William Hawkins and Richard Grenville. Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering, p.17; Andrews, Trade, Plunder and Settlement, p.110.
47 The ship’s captain, Jonas Bradbury, had captained the Disdain during the Armada battle and was Vice–Admiral of Ireland in 1601: Corbett, Drake and the Tudor Navy, II, p. 150; Marsden, ‘The Vice Admirals of the Coast’, p. 754.
48 BL, Lansdowne MS 115, no. 82, ff. 234–238, and no. 83, f. 239. The Mayor William Hopkins reports the figures at 30 and 100, but the figures of 32 and 135 given by Nicholas Thorne, the chamberlain, seem more precise. No doubt the barn was the only lodging large enough to accommodate the group at such short notice. When Francis Drake captured the Nuestra Senora del Rosario in August 1588 the 397 prisoners were kept in an old barn in the grounds of Torre Abbey, near Torquay: Martin, Spanish Armada Prisoners, p. 44.
49 Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering, p. 154.
50 TNA, SP 12/262/104 (Declaration of John Hill of Stonehouse, Plymouth, 1597); CSPD, 1595–1597, p.381. This may have been one of two brothers, John and William Clements, who were promoters of the privateering ship Archangel in 1600, which took two prizes near Cuba in 1602: Andrews, ‘English Voyages to the Caribbean’, p. 250.
51 Kaufmann, ‘Africans in Britain’, pp. 153–158.
52 Andrews, Elizabethan Privateering, pp. 109–111; Andrews, ‘English Voyages to the Caribbean’, p. 248; Archer, ‘Bayning, Paul (c.1539–1616)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
53 Returns of Strangers in the Metropolis, ed. Scoloudi, p. 149; LMA, MS 04310 (St Mary Bothaw, 29 March 1602); BCB, V, f. 337v (1 April 1609
); TNA, PROB 11/128, f. 256v (Will of Paul Bayning, 12 October 1616). If Julyane was one of the three maids noted in 1593, then there were four Africans in the Bayning household. If she was not, then there were five (though they were not necessarily all there at the same time).
54 LMA, MS 028867 (St Olave, Hart Street); Registers of St Olave, Hart St., ed. Bannerman; and St Botolph, Aldgate Registers as referenced above, n.2. Details of African entries in Kaufmann, ‘Africans in Britain’ Appendix, 1: Baptism Records and 2: Burial Records, see also Habib, Black Lives, Index and notes in Onyeka’s Blackamoores, pp. 355–361. Robert, who worked for William Matthew, was buried at St Botolph Aldgate on 29 November 1593, Francis, who worked for Peter Miller the beer brewer, died of scurvy and was buried there on 3 March 1596; for Francis Pinto see: Samuel, ‘Portuguese Jews in Jacobean London’, pp. 181, 185–7.
55 Samuel, ‘Nunes, Hector (1520–1591)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
56 Skelton and Summerson, A Description of Maps and Architectural Drawings in the Collection made by William Cecil, pp. 6, 65.
57 For the Ethiopian Negar, see Chapter 2, p. 58 and Chapter 4, p. 113 and Kaufmann, M., ‘African freedom in Tudor England: Dr Hector Nunes’ petition’, Our Migration Story, http://www.ourmigrationstory.org.uk/oms/african–freedom–in–tudor–england–dr–hector–nuness–request. In 1576, ‘Elizabeth a neger’ was listed amongst eight ‘servants to Mr Farnando’ in Tower Ward. By 1582–3, Alvarez himself was listed as part of Nunes’s household, as was Elizabeth and a second black woman, ‘Gratia’, or Grace. This was probably the ‘Grace a nigro out of Doctor Hector’s’ buried at St Olave Hart Street in July 1590. ‘Mary a blackamore from Doctor Hector’s’ had been buried in the same parish two years earlier in January 1588. Kirk and Kirk, Returns of Aliens, II, pp. 161 279; LMA, MS 028867; Registers of St Olave, Hart St., ed. Bruce Bannerman, pp. 121, 123.
58 Wilson further deposed that ‘they did make Saturday their Sunday’ wearing their best clothes and avoiding work on Saturdays, ‘but contrariwise on Sundays they would go and do as any workday.’ TNA, C 24/250, no. 6, f. 6; Sisson, ‘A colony of Jews in Shakespeare’s London’, pp. 45–7; Habib, Black Lives, Index, no. 169; Adelman, Blood Relations: Christian and Jew in the Merchant of Venice, pp.11–13, 261–2; Meyers, ‘Lawsuits in Elizabethan Courts of Law: The Adventures of Dr. Hector Nunes, 1566–1591’, pp. 157-8.
59 Piracy, Slavery and Redemption, ed. Vitkus, p. 2.
60 Brotton, This Orient Isle, pp. 80–81, 166–9; Holmes, ‘Stucley, Thomas (c.1520–1578)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; The Stukeley Plays, ed. Edelman, pp. 1–49.
61 BL, Cotton MS, Vespasian C VII, ff. 362, 371.
62 This was the first official embassy from the Moroccan state. However, ‘two Moores, being noble men, whereof one was of the Kings blood’ returned to Morocco with Thomas Wyndham on his first voyage there in 1551: Hakluyt, VI, p. 137. They were probably the ‘gentlemen from the King of Velez in Morocco’ who came to the English court in July 1551: CSPS, 1550–1552, p. 325. Velez was Peñόn de Vélez de la Gomera, a rocky fortress off the coast of Morocco, whose ruler was in conflict with Mohammed ash Sheikh. Despite the efforts of these men to gain support from Charles V in their struggle, the King of Velez was captured and beheaded by ash Sheikh in 1554: Willan, Studies in Elizabethan Foreign Trade, p. 97; CSPF, 1553–1558, p. 149.
63 Matar, Britain and Barbary, pp. 13–14.
64 Hakluyt, VI, p. 428.
65 TNA, SP 12/132, ff. 39–42; CSPD, 1547–1580, p. 633.
66 CSPS, 1587–1603, p. 516.
67 Green, The Double Life of Dr. Lopez, pp. 62–65, 72–73. BL, Lansdowne MS 158/66, ff. 131–2 (A remembrance of such matters as are requested in the behalf of the King of Portugal, 1592) and 67 f. 133 (The King of Portugal his answer upon the Supplication of his creditors, 1592).
68 Matar, Britain and Barbary, p. 15.
69 CSPS, 1587–1603, p. 523.
70 For a full account of the mission see Kelsey, Sir Francis Drake, pp. 341–364 and The Expedition of Sir John Norris and Sir Francis Drake to Spain and Portugal, 1589, ed. Wernham.
71 CSPS, 1587–1603, p. 550.
72 LMA, MS 028867 (St Olave’s, Hart Street, 6 June 1589); TNA, PROB 11/74/77 (Will of John Barker, 16 June 1589).
73 Matar, Britain and Barbary, p. 21. The merchant’s name was Edward Holmden.
74 Matar, Europe through Arab Eyes, p. 159.
75 Brotton, This Orient Isle, p. 203; Shakespeare, The Merchant of Venice, Act 2, Scene 7.
76 Stow, A Survey of London, p. 48. Hadfield, Edmund Spenser, p. 23. Pettegree, Foreign Protestant Communities, pp. 18, 108; Luu, Immigrants and Industries, p. 93; Grainger, The Royal Navy Victualling Yard and The Black Death Cemetery.
77 James Crew (d.1591), Baker and Citizen of London, and his wife Elizabeth (d.1595), had four sons living in 1595, Caleb, Joshua, James and Thomas.
78 ‘Lucretia’, The Dictionary of Medieval Names from European Sources, ed. Uckelman.
79 This is recorded in Harridance’s memorandum book, 19 January 1584, and also commented on in Knutson, ‘A Caliban in St. Mildred’s Poultry’, p. 124, n. 10.
80 The Book of Common Prayer, ed. Cummings, p. 430; Oxford English Dictionary, “catechism, n.”, OED Online.
81 Owen, ‘The London Parish Clergy in the Reign of Elizabeth I’, p. 417, n. 2.
82 The Book of Common Prayer, ed. Cummings, p. 149.
83 Van Cleve, ‘Somerset’s case and its antecedents’, p. 610; Drescher, Capitalism and Antislavery, p. 188, citing Lloyds Evening Post, 3–5 November 1760, p. 433.
84 ‘Sicut Dudum: Pope Eugene IV Against the Enslaving of Black Natives from the Canary Islands, January 13, 1435’, Papal Encyclidals Online; Smith, De Republica Anglorum, ed. Dewar, p. 136; Minutes of the Council and General Court of Colonial Virginia, ed. McIlwane, p. 33; no evidence has been found, as yet, of John Phillip’s baptism in the English parish registers.
85 Fryer, Staying Power, p. 114. See also Kaufmann, ‘English Common Law, Slavery and’, pp. 200–203.
86 Dimmock, ‘Converting and not converting “Strangers” in Early Modern London’, p. 467.
87 TNA, PROB 11/128, f. 256v.
88 Canterbury Cathedral Archives, DCb/L/R/13 and DCb/BT/1/94; Habib Index, no. 352.
89 Dimmock, ‘Converting and not converting “Strangers” in Early Modern London’, p. 459.
90 A.T. Vaughan, Transatlantic Encounters, p. 83.
91 ‘The Records of a Church of Christ 1640–1687’, ed. Hayden, pp. 101–2; Linebaugh and Redikker, The Many–Headed Hydra, pp. 71–104. Nathaniel Ingelo (1621–1683) came to Bristol from Cambridge in 1646, when he was appointed to All Saints, Bristol. He was the pastor of the independent congregation for the next few years, appointed fellow of Eton in 1650, and sent on an embassy to Sweden 1653–4. McLellan, ‘Ingelo, Nathaniel (1620/21–1683)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
92 Onyeka, Blackamoores, pp. 275–6.
93 BRO, FCP/St P +J/R/1(a)2.
94 The spelling ‘byllys’ is used by Margaret Paston in 1465: ‘the tenauntes havyng rusty polexis and byllys’: Paston letters and papers of the 15th century, ed. Davis, p. 312.
95 Numbers 12:1. Although the Hebrew refers to a ‘Cushite’ woman, so she may have been from Northern Arabia. Sixteenth- and seventeenth-century English readers would have taken it to mean Africa, as the Latin text was ‘Aethiopissam’, translated as ‘a woman of Ethiopia’ in the Geneva Bible (1560, first printed in England in 1575) and ‘Ethiopian woman’ in the King James’s Bible (1611). The Oxford Handbook of the Bible in Early Modern England, ed. Killeen, Smith and Willie, pp. 227–8. See also Iyengar, Shades of Difference, p. 24.
96 Bromley Historic Collections, P92/1/1, p. 1 (St Nicholas, Chislehurst, 22 April 1593); Bristol Record Office, FCP/Dy/R/1(a)1 (St Peter’s, Dyrham, 15 August 1575); LMA, MS 04310 (St Mary Bothaw, 29 March 1602); Devon Record Office, MF1, (St John the Baptist, Hatherleigh, 13 May 1604 and 10 August
1606).
97 The Book of Common Prayer, ed. Cummings, p. 150.
98 Dimmock, ‘Converting and not converting “Strangers” in Early Modern London’, p. 467.
99 Hanmer, The Baptizing of a Turke, sigs. A4v–5r., E3r–E4r; Hanmer cites Matthew, 5:14; Babinger, Hickman and Mannheim, Mehmed the Conqueror and his Time, p. 281. See also Dimmock, ‘Converting and not converting “Strangers” in Early Modern London’, pp. 457–478.
100 ‘The Records of a Church of Christ 1640–1687’, ed. Hayden, pp. 101–2.
101 Acts, 10: 34–5. This is the wording from the King James Bible (1611).
102 Habib, Black Lives, pp. 19–20; Fryer and Bush, The Politics of British Black History, pp. 10–11.
103 BL, Royal MS, 17 B. X (Petition of William Bragge to the Honourable Sir Thomas Smith, Knight, and all the Company of the East India and Sommer Islands).
104 The Lives, Apprehensions, Arraignments, and Executions, of the 19 Late Pirates, sigs. E2r, E4r.
105 Dimmock, ‘Converting and not converting “Strangers” in Early Modern London’, p. 467.
106 The Book of Common Prayer, ed. Cummings, p. 141.
107 City of Westminster Archives Centre, St Martin’s in the Fields Parish Registers, vol. 2 (8 February 1621).
108 The Book of Common Prayer, ed. Cummings, p. 145.
109 ‘The Records of a Church of Christ 1640–1687’, ed. Hayden, pp. 101–2.
110 See above, n. 92.
111 Hatfield, Cecil Papers 91/15; Calendar of the Manuscripts of the Most Honourable the Marquess of Salisbury, ed. Owen, XI, p. 569; Tudor Royal Proclamations, ed. Hughes and Larkin, III, pp. 221–222.
112 For Fortunatus, see Chapter 4, p. 116, n. 31. Kaufmann, ‘Caspar van Senden, Sir Thomas Sherley and the ‘Blackamoor’ Project’. See also Bartels, ‘Too Many Blackamoors: Deportation, Discrimination, and Elizabeth I’ and Weissbourd, “Those in Their Possession”: Race, Slavery, and Queen Elizabeth’s “Edicts of Expulsion”.
113 Brotton, This Orient Isle, p. 273–4, citing Stow, Annales, p. 791. There has been some confusion as to the location of Alderman Radcliffe’s house in the secondary literature. Brotton, p. 4, (possibly following Harris, ‘Portrait of a Moor’, p. 28) says it is on The Strand, near the Royal Exchange. But the Strand ends at Temple Bar, over a mile west of the Exchange. Anthony Radcliffe was resident in the parish of St Christopher le Stocks, and so lived near the Royal Exchange, but not on the Strand: The register book of the parish of St. Christopher le Stocks, ed. Freshfield, pp. 7, 34, 35; Knowles, ‘Moulson, Ann, Lady Moulson (1576–1661)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
Black Tudors Page 39