The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life

by Richard J. Herrnstein

  Boyer, E. L. 1983. High School: A Report on Secondary Education in America. New York: Harper & Row.

  Boykin, A. W. 1986. The triple quandary and the schooling of Afro-American children. In The School Achievement of Minority Children. U. Neisser (ed.). Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 57-92.

  Bracey, G. W. 1991. The big lie about U.S. education. Phi Delta Kappan (October): 105-117.

  Braden, J. P. 1989. Fact or artifact? An empirical test of Spearman’s hypothesis. Intelligence 13:149-155.

  Bradley, R. H., et al. 1977. Home environment, social status, and mental test performance. J. of Educational Psych. 69:697-701.

  Brandt, E. A. 1984. The cognitive functioning of American Indian children: A critique of McShane and Plas. School Psych. Rev. 13:74-82.

  Braun, H. I., Centra, J., and King, B. F. 1987. Verbal and Mathematical Ability of High School Juniors and Seniors in 1983: A Norm Study of the PSAT/NMSQT and the SAT. Princeton, N.J.: Educational Testing Service.

  Braun, L. W. 1992. Psychologists v. the law: The debate over employment testing. Third-year paper. Harvard Law School.

  Brayden, R. M., Altemeier, W. A., Tucker, D. D., Dietrich, M. S., and Vietze, P. 1992. Antecedents of child neglect in the first two years of life. J. of Pediatrics 120:426-429.

  Breland, H. M. 1976. Grade Inflation and Declining SAT Scores: A Research Viewpoint. Princeton, N.J.: Educational Testing Service.

  Breland, H. M. 1979. Population Validity and College Entrance Measures. New York: College Board.

  Brigham, C. C. 1923. A Study of American Intelligence. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.

  Brigham, C. C. 1932. A Study of Error: A Summary and Evaluation of Methods Used in Six Years of Study of the Scholastic Aptitude Test of the College Entrance Examination Board. New York: College Entrance Examination Board.

  Brodnick, R. J., and Ree, M. J. 1993. A structural model of academic performance, socioeconomic status, and Spearman’s g. San Antonio: St. Mary’s University of Texas. Photocopy.

  Brody, N. 1987. Jensen, Gottfredson, and the black-white difference in intelligence test scores. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 10:507-508.

  Brody, N. 1992. Intelligence. 2d ed., San Diego: Academic Press.

  Brogden, H. E. 1949. When testing pays off. Personnel Psych. 2:171-183.

  Bronfenbrenner, U. 1958. Socialization and social class through time and space. In Readings in Social Psychology. Eleanor E. Maccoby, T. M. Newcomb, and E. L. Hartley (eds.). New York: Holt, pp. 400-425.

  Brooks-Gunn, J., Liaw, F., and Klebanov, P. K. 1992. Effects of early intervention on cognitive function of low birth weight preterm infants. J. of Pediatrics 120:350-359.

  Bross, D. S., and Shapiro, S. 1982. Direct and indirect association of five factors with infant mortality. Am. J. of Epidemiology 115:78-91.

  Brown, A. L., and Campione, J. C. 1982. Modifying intelligence or modifying cognitive skills: More than a semantic quibble? In How and How Much Can Intelligence Be Increased. D. K. Detterman and R. J. Sternberg (eds.). Norwood, N.J.: Ablex Publishing Corp., pp. 215-230.

  Brown, C. 1980. A note on the determination of “acceptable” performance in Thorndike’s standard of fair selection. J. of Educational Measurement 17:203-209.

  Brown, H. P. 1988. Egalitarianism and the Generation of Inequality. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

  Brown, M. K., and Erie, S. P. 1981. Blacks and the legacy of the Great Society. Public Policy 12:299-330.

  Brown, R. 1958. Words and Things: An Introduction to Language. New York: Free Press.

  Buenning, M., and Tollefson, N. 1987. The cultural gap hypothesis as an explanation for the achievement patterns of Mexican-American students. Psych. in the Schools 24:264-272.

  Bulcroft, R. A., and Bulcroft, K. A. 1993. Race differences in attitudinal and motivational factors in the decision to marry. J. of Marriage and the Family 55:338-355.

  Bumpass, L., and McLanahan, S. 1989. Unmarried motherhood: Recent trends, composition, and black-white differences. Demography 26:279-286.

  Bundy, M. 1955. Four subjects and four hopes. College Board Rev. 27:17-20.

  Bunzel, J. H. 1992. Race Relations on Campus: Stanford Students Speak. The Portable Stanford. Stanford: Stanford Alumni Association.

  Bunzel, J. H., and Au, J. K. D. 1987. Diversity or discrimination—Asian Americans in college. Public Interest no. 87:49-62.

  Burck, C. G. 1976. A group profile of the Fortune 500 chief executive. Fortune (May): 173-177.

  Burdick, E. 1959. Political theory and the voting studies. In American Voting Behavior. E. Burdick and A. J. Brodbeck (eds.). Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, pp. 136-149.

  Bureau of Labor Statistics. 1982. Labor Force Statistics Derived from the Current Population Survey: A Databook. Vol. 1. U.S. Department of Labor Bulletin 2096. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

  Bureau of Labor Statistics. 1983. Handbook of Labor Statistics. U.S. Department of Labor, Bulletin 2175. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

  Bureau of Labor Statistics. 1989. Handbook of Labor Statistics. U.S. Department of Labor, Bulletin 2340. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

  Burgess, E. W., and Wallin, P. 1943. Homogamy in social characteristics. Am. J. of Sociology 49:109-124.

  Burke, M. J., and Frederick, J. T. 1984. Two modified procedures for estimating standard deviations in utility analyses. J. of Applied Psych. 69:482-489.

  Burt, C. 1963. Is intelligence distributed normally? British J. of Statistical Psych. 16:175-190.

  Buss, D. M. 1987. Sex differences in human mate selection criteria: An evolutionary perspective. In Sociobiology and Psychology: Ideas, Issues and Applications. C. C., M. Smith, and D. Krebs (eds.). Hillsdale, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, pp. 335-351.

  Buss, D. M. 1989. Sex differences in human mate preferences: Evolutionary hypotheses tested in 37 cultures. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 12:1-49.

  Butler, R. P., and McCauley, C. 1987. Extraordinary stability and ordinary predictability of academic success at the United States Military Academy. J. of Educational Psych. 79:83-86.

  Cain, D. P., and Vanderwolf, C. H. 1990. A critique of Rushton on race, brain size, and intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences 11:777-784.

  Caldwell, B. M., and Bradley, R. H. 1984. Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment. Little Rock, Ark.: University of Arkansas Press.

  Camayd-Freixas, Y., and Horst, L. 1987. Dropouts in 1987. Boston: School Committee of the City of Boston, Office of Research and Development.

  Cameron, S. V., and Heckman, J. J. 1992. The nonequivalence of high school equivalents. University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. Photocopy.

  Cameron, S. V., and Heckman, J. J. 1993. Determinants of young male schooling and training choices. Working Paper 4327. Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research.

  Campbell, A., Converse, P. E., Miller, W. E., and Stokes, D. E. 1960. The American Voter. New York: Wiley.

  Capron, C., and Duyme, M. 1989. Assessment of effects of socioeconomic status on IQ in a full cross-fostering study. Nature 340:552-553.

  Card, D., and Kreuger, A. B. 1993. Trends in relative black-white earnings revisited. Am. Econ. Rev. 83:85-91.

  Carliner, G. 1980. Wages, earnings, and hours of first, second and third generation American males. Econ. Inquiry 18:87-102.

  Carlson, C. C., Huelskamp, R. M., and Woodall, T. D. 1993. Perspectives on education in America: An annotated briefing. J. of Educational Research 86:259-310.

  Carlson, T. 1993. D.C. blues: The rap sheet on the Washington police. Policy Rev. (Winter): 26-33.

  Carroll, J. B. 1988. Individual differences in cognitive functioning. In Stevens’ Handbook of Experimental Psych.. R. C. Atkinson, R. J. Herrnstein, G. Lindzey, and R. D. Luce (eds.). New York: Wiley-Interscience, 2:813-862.

  Carter, S. 1991. Reflections of an Affirmative Action Baby. New York: Basic Books.

  Caruso, D. R., Taylor, J. J., and Detterman, D. K. 1982. Intelligence resea
rch and intelligent policy. In How and How Much Can Intelligence Be Increased. D. K. Detterman and R. J. Sternberg (eds.). Norwood, N.J.: Ablex Publishing Corp., pp. 45-65.

  Cathcart, D. A., and Snyderman, M. 1992. The Civil Rights Act of 1991. The Labor Lawyer 8:849-922.

  Cattell, R. B. 1936. Is our national intelligence declining? Eugenics Rev. 28:181-203.

  Cattell, R. B. 1937. The Fight for Our National Intelligence. London: King & Sons.

  Cattell, R. B. 1938. Some changes in social life in a community with a falling intelligence quotient. British J. of Psych. 28:430-450.

  Cattell, R. B. 1951. The fate of national intelligence: Test of a thirteen-year prediction. Eugenics Rev. 42:136-148.

  Cattell, R. B. 1971. Abilities: Their Structure, Growth, and Action. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

  Cattell, R. B. 1974. Differential fertility and normal selection for IQ: Some required conditions in their investigation. Social Biology 21:168-177.

  Cattell, R. B. 1979. Are culture fair intelligence tests possible and necessary? J. of Research and Development in Education 12:3-13.

  Cattell, R. B. 1983. Intelligence and National Achievement. Washington, D.C.: Institute for the Study of Man.

  Ceci, S. J. 1991. How much does schooling influence general intelligence and its cognitive components? A reassessment of the evidence. Developmental Psych. 27:703-722.

  Ceci, S. J., and Liker, J. K. 1986. A day at the races: A study of IQ, expertise, and cognitive complexity. J. of Experimental Psych. 115:255-266.

  Chaiken, J. M., and Chaiken, M. R. 1983. Crime rates and the active criminal. In Crime and Public Policy. J. Q. Wilson (ed.). San Francisco: ICS Press, pp. 11-30.

  Chan, J. W. C., and Vernon, P. E. 1988. Individual differences among the peoples of China. In Human Abilities in Cultural Context. S. H. Irvine and J. W. Berry (eds.). New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 340-357.

  Chan, S., and Wang, L.-C. 1991. Racism and the model minority: Asian-Americans in higher education. In The Racial Crisis in American Higher Education. P. G. Altbach and K. Lomotey (eds.). Albany, N.Y.: State University of New York Press, pp. 43-68.

  Chen, R., and Morgan, S. P. 1991. Recent trends in the timing of first births in the United States. Demography 28:513-533.

  Cherlin, A. J. 1981. Marriage, Divorce, Remarriage. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press.

  Chipuer, H. M., Rovine, M. J., and Plomin, R. 1990. LISREL modeling: Genetic and environmental influences on IQ revisited. Intelligence 14:11-21.

  Chiswick, B. R. 1978. The effect of Americanization on the earnings of foreign-born men. J. of Political Econ. 86:897-921.

  Chun, K.-T., and Zalokar, N. 1992. Civil Rights Issues Facing Asian Americans in the 1990s. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Commission on Civil Rights.

  Church, A. T., and Katigbak, M. S. 1991. Home environment, nutritional status, and maternal intelligence as determinants of intellectual development in rural Philippine preschool children. Intelligence 15:49-78.

  Cicarelli, V. G., Evans, J. W., and Schiller, J. S. 1969. The Impact of Head Start: An Evaluation of the Effects of Head Start on Children’s Cognitive and Affective Development. Athens, Ohio: Westinghouse Learning Corporation and Ohio University.

  Cicchetti, D., and Rizley, R. 1981. Developmental perspectives on the etiology, intergenerational transmission, and sequelae of child maltreatment. New Directions for Child Development 11:31-55.

  Clark, C. D., and Gist, N. P. 1938. Intelligence as a factor in occupational choice. Am. Sociological Rev. 3:683-694.

  Cleckley, H. 1964. The Mask of Sanity. St. Louis: Mosby.

  Clews, H. 1908. Fifty Years in Wall Street. New York: Irving Publishing Co.

  Clignet, R. 1974. Liberty and Equality in the Educational Process: A Comparative Sociology of Education. New York: Wiley.

  Clotfelter, C. T. 1990. Undergraduate Enrollments in the 1980s. Working Paper. Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau for Economic Research.

  Cogan, J. 1982. The decline in black teenage employment: 1950-70. Am. Econ. Rev. 72:621-638.

  Cohen, M. I., Raphling, D. L., and Green, P. E. 1966. Psychological aspects of the maltreatment syndrome in childhood. J. of Pediatrics 69:279-284.

  Colaizzi, J. 1989. Homicidal Insanity. 1800-985. Tuscaloosa, Ala.: University of Alabama Press.

  Cole, B. P. 1987. College admissions and coaching. Negro Educational Rev. 38:125-135.

  Cole, C. C., Jr. 1955. Who’s going to college? College Board Rev. 27:13-16.

  Coleman, J. S. 1972. The evaluation of Equality of Educational Opportunity. In On Equality of Educational Opportunity. F. Mosteller and D. P. Moynihan (eds.). New York: Random House, pp. 146-167.

  Coleman, J. S. 1993. Comment on Preston and Campbell’s “Differential fertility and the distribution of traits.” Am. J. of Sociology 98:1020-1032.

  Coleman, J. S., and Hoffer, T. 1987. Public and Private Schools: The Impact of Communities. New York: Basic Books.

  Coleman, J. S., et al. 1966. Equality of Educational Opportunity, Supplemental Appendix 9.10. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Office of Education.

  Coles, R. 1967. Migrants, Sharecroppers, and Mountaineers. Children of Crisis, vol. 2. Boston: Little, Brown.

  College Entrance Examination Board. 1961. College Profiles. New York: College Entrance Examination Board.

  Collins, J. W. 1992. Disparate black and white neonatal mortality rates among infants of normal birth weight in Chicago: A population study. J. of Pediatrics 120:954-960.

  Committee on Minority Affairs. 1984. Report to the Corporation Committee on Minority Affairs from Its Subcommittee on Asian American Admissions. Providence, R.I.: Brown University Corporation.

  Committee on Ways and Means and U.S. House of Representatives. 1993. 1993 Green Book: Background Material and Data on Programs within the Jurisdiction of the Committee on Ways and Means. WMCP 103-18. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

  Congressional Budget Office. 1986. Trends in Educational Achievement. Congress of the United States. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

  Congressional Budget Office. 1987. Educational Achievement: Explanations and Implications of Recent Trends. Congress of the United States. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

  Consortium on Financing Higher Education. 1992. COFHE Admissions Statistics: Classes Entering 1991 and 1992 (Redbook XVII).Cambridge, Mass.: Consortium on Financing Higher Education.

  Converse, P. E. 1964. The nature of belief systems in mass publics. In Ideology and Discontent D. E. Apter (ed.). New York: Free Press, pp. 206-261.

  Cook, P. C. 1987. Cultural bias in the California Achievement Tests: A focus on internal indices. Dissertations Abstracts International 48(2-A):339.

  Cook, P. J., and Frank, R. H. 1991. The growing concentration of top students at elite schools. In The Economics of Higher Education. C. Clotfelter and M. Rothschild (eds.) Chicago: NBER-University of Chicago Press.

  Cook, R. C. 1951. Human Fertility: The Modern Dilemma. New York: Sloane.

  Cook, T. K., Appleton, H., Conner, R. F., Shaffer, A., Tamkin, G., and Weber, S. J. 1975. “Sesame Street” Revisited. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

  Cooksey, E. C. 1990. Factors in the resolution of adolescent premarital pregnancies. Demography 27:207-218.

  Coser, L. 1965. The sociology of poverty. Social Problems 13:140-148.

  Costello, J. 1970. Effects of pretesting and examiner characteristics on test performance of young disadvantaged children. Proceedings of the 78th Annual Convention, Am. Psychological Assoc. 5:309-310.

  Costopoulos, P. J. 1990. Jefferson, Adams, and the natural aristocracy. First Things 1:46-52.

  Cramer, J. C. 1987. Social factors and infant mortality: Identifying high-risk groups and proximate causes. Demography 24:299-322.

  Crawford-Nutt, D. H. 1976. Are black scores on Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices an artifact of method of test presentation? Psychologia Africana 16:201-206.

  Crittenden, P. 1988. Family and dyadic patterns of funct
ioning in maltreating families. In Early Prediction and Prevention of Child Abuse. K. Browne, C. Davies, and P. Stratton (eds.). New York: Wiley, pp. 161-189.

  Crombie, I. K., Todman, J., McNeill, G., Florey, C. D. V., Menzies, I., and Kennedy, R. A. 1990. Effect of vitamin and mineral supplementation on verbal and non-verbal reasoning of school children. Lancet 335:744-747

  Cronbach, L. J., and Gleser, G. C. 1965. Psychological Tests and Personnel Decisions. 2d ed., Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press.

  Crouse, J., and Trusheim, D. 1988. The Case against the SAT. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

  Cutler, D. M., and Katz, L. F. 1991. Macroeconomic Performance and the Disadvantaged. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University and NEBR.

  Cyphers, L. H., Fulker, D. W., Plomin, R., and DeFries, J. C. 1989. Cognitive abilities in the early school years: No effects of shared environment between parents and offspring. Intelligence 13:369-386.

  D’Souza, D. 1991. Illiberal Education. New York: Free Press.

  Darlington, C. D. 1969. The Evolution of Man and Society. New York: Simon and Schuster.

  Das, J. P 1985. Interpretations for a class on minority assessment. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 8:228.

  David, R. 1990. Race, birth weight, and mortality rates. J. of Pediatrics 116:101-102.

  Davis, A., and Havighurst, R. J. 1946. Social class and color differences in child-rearing. Am. Sociological Rev. 11:698-710.

  DeFries, J. C., Johnson, R. C., Kuse, A. R., McClearn, G. E., Polovina, J., Vandenberg, S. G., and Wilson, J. R. 1979. Familial resemblance for specific cognitive abilities. Behavior Genetics 9:23-43.

  Dekovic, M., and Gerris, J. R. M. 1992. Parental reasoning complexity, social class, and child-rearing behaviors. J. of Marriage and the Family 54:675-685.

  Delattre, E. J. 1989. Character and Cops: Ethics in Policing. Washington, D. C.: American Enterprise Institute.

  Denno, D. W. 1990. Biology and Violence: From Birth to Adulthood. New York: Cambridge University Press.

  DerSimonian, R., and Laird, N. M. Evaluating the effect of coaching on SAT scores: A meta-analysis. Harvard Educational Rev. 53:1-15.

  Detlefsen, R. R. 1991. Civil Rights under Reagan. San Francisco: ICS Press.