58. Literature on the Late Cretaceous faunas from France is quite considerable. The following are some of the more important recent studies: Buffetaut et al. 1988, 1989, 1995, 1996, 1997; Buffetaut and Le Loeuff 1991b, 1997, 1998; Cheylan 1994; Garcia et al. 1999; Laurent et al. 1997; Le Loeuff 1992, 1995; Le Loeuff and Buffetaut 1990, 1998; Le Loeuff and Moreno 1992; Le Loeuff and Souillat 1997; Pereda-Suberbiola 1992; Vasse 1995.
59. Buffetaut et al. 1993.
60. Viany-Liaud et al. 1994.
61. Antunes and Sigogneau-Russell 1991, 1996; Galton 1996.
62. Bataller 1960; Astibia et al. 1990, 1999; Brinkmann 1984; Buscalioni et al. 1997; Casanovas et al. 1987, 1999a, 1999b; Casanovas-Cladellas et al. 1985, 1988; Company et al. 1998; Pol et al. 1992; Prieto-Márquez et al. 2000; Sander et al. 1998; Sanz et al. 1995, 1999.
63. Buffetaut 1979; Bunzel 1871; Pereda-Suberbiola and Galton 1992; Sachs and Hornung 2006; Seeley 1881; Wellnhofer 1980.
64. Sachs and Hornung 2006.
65. Seeley 1883; Buffetaut et al. 1985; Mulder 1984; Mulder et al. 1997; Seeley 1881; Weishampel et al. 2000.
66. Riabinin 1945.
67. Wellnhofer 1994.
68. Dalla Vecchia 1997, 2009.
69. Debeljak et al. 1999.
70. Ősi 2003, 2004, 2005; Ősi et al. 2003, 2005, 2007, 2010.
71. Godefroit and Motchurova-Dekova 2010.
72. Arkhangelsky and Averianov 2003.
73. Averianov and Yarkov 2004; Yarkov and Nessov 2000.
74. Weishampel et al. 2004.
75. Weishampel et al. 2004.
76. Jianu and Boekschoten 1999a, 1999b. See also Sanders 1998.
77. MacArthur and Wilson 1967, 3–4.
78. J. Brown 1971; Hairston 1951; Mohr 1943.
CHAPTER FIVE. Little Giants and Big Dwarfs
1. Buffetaut 1987; see also Weishampel and White 2003.
2. Abel 1914 had earlier suggested that Empedocles (492–432 BC) considered the massive bones discovered on his native island of Sicily to be the remains of a race of giants. Mayor 2000 was unable to confirm Abel’s suggestion through either the latter’s own citations or in classical sources, indicating instead that perhaps the connection between Empedocles and fossil bones was no more than imaginative supposition on Abel’s part.
3. Boccaccio 1350.
4. Ginsburg 1984.
5. Plot 1677. See also Weishampel and White 2003.
6. Plot 1676, 134 [italics in original].
7. Brookes 1763.
8. Robinet 1768.
9. Delair and Sarjeant 1975; Halstead 1970; Halstead and Sarjeant 1993.
10. Delair and Sarjeant 1975; Desmond 1979, 1982, 1989; Torrens 1997.
11. Buckland 1824. See also Benson 2010; Edmonds 1979; Rudwick 1985.
12. Mantell 1825. See also Dean 1999.
13. Owen 1842, 1894; Rüpke 1994.
14. Dean 1999; Torrens 1997.
15. Owen 1842, 103.
16. Weishampel and Young 1996.
17. Glut and Brett-Surman 1997.
18. Holtz 2004.
19. Sereno et al. 1996.
20. Coria and Salgado 1995.
21. Dodson 1990.
22. Gillette 1994.
23. Bonaparte and Coria 1993.
24. Cope 1896. See also J. Brown and Maurer 1986; Damuth 1993; Gould 1966; Rensch 1959; Stanley 1973.
25. Alberch 1982; Alberch et al. 1979; McKinney 1988; McNamara 1988, 1997.
26. Alberch 1982; Alberch et al. 1979; McKinney 1988; McKinney et al. 1990; McNamara 1988.
27. McNamara 1997.
28. Lamar 1997.
29. By “dwarfed dinosaur,” neither Nopcsa nor we are suggesting that a particular stature is achieved—it’s not a matter of measuring these creatures with a meter stick. There is no absolute threshold below which we would recognize a dinosaur (or any other organism) as a dwarf. Nor are we speaking of shrew-, squirrel-, or dog-sized dinosaurs, although such body sizes could be possible for a dwarfed dinosaur, providing it evolved from a larger-bodied ancestor. Here is the quintessence of our recognition of dwarfing: downsizing that is attributable to phylogeny.
30. Nopcsa 1914b, 1915.
31. Nopcsa 1915, 18.
32. Nopcsa 1917a.
33. Boekschoten and Sondaar 1972; Roth 1992; Sondaar 1977.
34. Godfrey and Sutherland 1996; Shea 1989. See also Gould 1977.
35. McKinney and McNamara 1991. See also Blackstone 1987; Emerson 1986; Klingenberg 1998; McKinney 1986; McNamara 1986.
36. Gould 1977.
37. Haeckel 1866.
38. Gould 1977.
39. Alberch et al. 1979.
40. Alberch et al. 1979; Gould 1977; McKinney and McNamara 1991; Mc-Namara 1997.
41. L. Brown and Rockwood 1986; Gould 1974; McKinney 1984; Morey 1994.
42. McKinney and Schoch 1985.
43. Shubin and Alberch 1986.
44. McNamara and Trewin 1993.
45. Wayne 1986.
46. Gould 1977.
47. Adams 1998; Adams and Pederson 1994.
48. See Horner et al. 2005; Jones and Gould 1999; Padian and Horner 2004; Padian et al. 2004.
49. Castanet 1987; Castanet et al. 1993; Chinsamy 1995; Chinsamy and Hil-lenius 2004; Chinsamy-Turan 2005; Curry 1999; Erickson and Tumanova 2000; Erickson et al. 2004; Horner et al. 1999, 2000, 2001; Klein and Sander 2008; Padian et al. 2004; Sander 2000. Nopcsa’s interest in the histology of fossil bone, cut short by his suicide in 1933, can be seen in Nopcsa and Heidsieck 1933.
50. Varricchio 1997.
51. Erickson 2005; Erickson and Tumanova 2000; Erickson et al. 2006, 2009; Sander 1999, 2000; Sander and Clauss 2008; Sander et al. 2004, 2006.
52. Redelstorff et al. 2009.
53. Stein et al. 2010.
54. Redelstorff et al. 2009.
55. Long and McNamara 1995; Weishampel and Horner 1994.
56. Jianu and Weishampel 1999; Jianu et al. 1997; Weishampel et al. 1993.
57. Brooks and McLennan 1991; Farris 1970; Weishampel and Jianu 1997; Wiley et al. 1991.
58. Nelson and Platnick 1981; Nelson and Rosen 1981; Weishampel 1995; Witmer 1995.
59. D. Maddison and W. Maddison, 2000, MacClade 4: Analysis of Phylogeny and Character Evolution, Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA; K. C. Nixon, 1999, Winclada, www.cladistics.com/about_winc.htm; D. L. Swofford, 2002, PAUP*: Phylogenetic Analysis Using Parsimony (and Other Methods), Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA.
60. Nopcsa 1900.
61. For a study of the replacement patterns of these kinds of teeth using theoretical morphology (introduced in chapter 4), see Weishampel 1991.
62. Weishampel et al. 1993.
63. Weishampel et al. 1993.
64. Alexander 1985, 1989, 1997.
65. Nopcsa 1915. Recently, Le Loeuff 2002 argued that these body size estimates for Magyarosaurus dacus are too low, based on material from this ti-tanosaur in the collections of the Magyar Földtani Állami Intézet in Budapest and the Natural History Museum in London that suggests that adults reached a length of 10–15 m. We were aware of this material, but we did not include it because it was too incomplete to yield data for our study. In addition, these larger individuals are very rare in the total sample of specimens, and we regarded this rarity as representing very old individuals of continuously growing titanosaurs. Le Loeuff’s alternative hypothesis was to identify our sample as young individuals, which necessitates a taphonomic explanation in which preservation biases favor juveniles over adults, perhaps coupled with community segregation into age cohorts. Whereas this is a very interesting hypothesis, histological evidence indicates that reproductively mature adults of M. dacus were small, and that this titanosaur was a paedomorphic dwarf. Csiki et al. 2007, 2010 resolved this quandary by recognizing two different titanosaur sauropods from the Haţeg Basin, the smaller, more common M. dacus and a larger, rarer form named Paludititan nalatzensis.
66. Curry Rogers and Forster 2001; Upchurch 1995, 1998; Wilson 2002
; Wilson and Sereno 1998.
67. Jianu and Weishampel 1999.
68. The adult sample is significantly different from that of the growth series at p = 0.01, using the nonparametric quick test from Tsutakawa and Hewett 1977, which can be used to compare two populations represented by bivariate data, but with small sample sizes.
69. Again, employing the quick test from Tsutakawa and Hewett 1977, the Magyarosaurus sample is significantly different from the adult sample at p = 0.03, but not significantly different from the growth series. Unfortunately, we were unable to use the one large humerus identified by Le Loeuff 2002, because it is far from complete (and it may well be Paludititan nalatzensis).
70. This kind of mapping of features onto an existing cladogram is technically known as character optimization. For further information, see Brooks and McLennan 1991; Farris 1970; Wiley et al. 1991.
71. Curry Rogers and Forster 2001.
72. Weishampel and Jianu, unpublished manuscript; Weishampel et al. 2003.
73. Tsutakawa and Hewett 1977.
74. Buffetaut et al. 2003; Wellnhofer 1991.
75. Nopcsa 1926a.
76. Schindewolf 1993.
77. Schindewolf 1993, 300.
78. Alexander 1968; Burness et al. 2001; Calder 1984; Kleiber 1961; Lindstedt and Calder 1981; Pedley 1977; Schmidt-Nielsen 1972, 1975, 1979.
79. J. Brown and Maurer 1986.
80. Carlquist 1974; Case 1978; Foster 1964; Sondaar 1977; Van Valen 1973b.
81. Van Valen 1973b, 35. See also Benton et al. 2010; Case 1978; Sondaar 1977.
82. Roth 1992. See also Benton et al. 2010.
83. Lomolino 1984.
84. Csiki and Grigorescu 1998.
85. Hooijer 1957.
86. Goldman 2000.
87. J. Brown 1975; Grant 1965; Heany 1978; Lomolino 1985, 1986.
88. Damuth 1993; Maiorana 1973; Van Valen 1973b.
89. Gould 1977, 290.
CHAPTER SIX. Living Fossils and Their Ghosts
1. Courtenay-Latimer 1979, 7; Erdmann et al. 1998; Forey 1988, 1998; J. Smith 1956; Thomson 1991; Weinberg 2000.
2. For further information on the history of the discovery of coelacanths, see Pouyaud et al. 1999; Thomson 1991; Weinberg 2000.
3. Eldredge and Stanley 1984.
4. Darwin 1859, 105–108.
5. Delamare-Deboutteville and Botosancanu 1970. See also Schopf 1984.
6. Simpson 1953, 331.
7. Raup and Marshall 1980; Simpson 1944, 1953; Van Valen 1973a.
8. B. Schaeffer 1952; Westoll 1949.
9. Hennig 1965; Norell 1992.
10. Norell 1992. See also Benton 1990; Benton and Storrs 1994; Gauthier et al. 1988; Norell and Novacek 1992a, 1992b; Novacek and Norell 1982; Sereno 1991; Weishampel 1996; Weishampel and Heinrich 1992; Weishampel et al. 1993.
11. Benton and Storrs 1994. Two other techniques—the Stratigraphic Consistency Index, or SCI (Huelsenbeck 1994), and the Manhattan Stratigraphic Measure, or MSM (Siddall 1998)—have also been used in examining the fit between phylogeny and stratigraphy, but they are not as amenable to calculating the rates of character change that are found in this chapter.
12. Weishampel 1996.
13. Nopcsa 1923b.
14. Godefroit et al. 1998; Head 1998; Horner et al. 2004; Kirkland 1998; Norman 2004; Norman et al. 2004.
15. The age of the oldest member of the remaining hadrosaurids, a not particularly well-known euhadrosaurian named Trachodon cantabrigiensis from England (Lydekker 1888), is latest Early Cretaceous (i.e., late Albian).
16. Miller 1934, 2.
17. Weishampel et al. 1993.
18. Sereno et al. 1999. Pachycephalosaurs were not included in the comparisons made here, because their character data are few and almost completely restricted to the skull, thereby unnaturally depressing the rates of character change.
19. Cloutier 1991.
CHAPTER SEVEN. Transylvania, the Land of Contingency
1. Basinger 1990.
2. Gould 1989. See also Beatty 1995; Carrier 1995; Schaffner 1995.
3. Christie 1999; Matthews 1998.
4. Bush 1975; Coyne 1992; Endler 1977; Giddings et al. 1997; Kaneshiro 1989; Otte and Endler 1989.
5. Barigozzi 1982.
6. Barton and Charlesworth (1984) argued that during the development of a population by a few founders, the depletion of genetic variation and the effects of genetic drift would not be very great, unless the population remains small for a considerable number of generations.
7. Barton and Charlesworth 1984; Mayr 1942.
8. Mayr 1963.
9. Haldane 1956, 1957.
10. Mayr 1965.
11. Nopcsa 1923b. For a recent assessment of the biogeography of the Haţeg vertebrate fauna, based on relationships within Europe, see Csiki 1997; Csiki and Grigorescu 2001; Weishampel et al. 2004.
12. Data from Weishampel et al. 2004.
13. This approach is described in detail in Weishampel and Jianu 1997.
14. The oldest euhadrosaurian comes from the late Albian of England (Lydekker 1888).
15. Godefroit et al. 2003; Weishampel et al. 2004; You, Luo, et al. 2003.
16. Head 1998; Horner et al. 2004; Kirkland 1998.
17. Buffetaut et al. 2001; Dalla Vecchia 2001; Dal Sasso 2003.
18. Dalla Vecchia 2009.
19. Sensu Horner et al. 2004.
20. Casanovas 1992; Casanovas et al. 1987; Casanovas-Cladellas and Santafé-Llopis 1993; López-Martínez et al. 2001.
21. Casanovas et al. 1999a, 1993; Dalla Vecchia 2006; Head 2001; Prieto-Márquez and Wagner 2009.
22. Dalla Vecchia 2006; Prieto-Márquez 2009.
23. Prieto-Márquez and Wagner 2009.
24. Head 2001; Pereda-Suberbiola et al. 2009; Prieto-Márquez et al. 2006.
25. Casanovas et al. 1999b; Prieto-Márquez and Wagner 2009.
26. Casanovas et al. 1999b; Dalla Vecchia 2006.
27. Casanovas et al. 1999b; Dalla Vecchia 2006; Pereda-Suberbiola et al. 2009.
28. See also Buffetaut et al. 1991.
29. Astibia et al. 1999.
30. Astibia et al. 1999; Sanz et al. 1999.
31. The actual situation may not be so straightforward. A very interesting occurrence—a yet-to-be-described euornithopod from the Late Cretaceous of Antarctica (Hooker et al. 1991; Angela Milner, pers. comm.; Milner et al. 1992) appears to have several dental and postcranial features in common with rhabdo-dontids and, if it proves to be a member of this clade, could greatly alter our biogeographic interpretations here.
32. Ősi 2005; Ősi and Makádi 2009; Ősi et al. 2003.
33. Le Loeuff 1995, and pers. comm.
34. Wilson and Upchurch 2003.
35. Delfino et al. 2008.
36. Ősi et al. 2007.
37. Weishampel et al. 2004.
38. Hirayama et al. 2000.
39. Danilov and Parham 2008; Joyce 2007.
40. Csiki and Grigorescu 2001, 2006; Gheerbrant et al. 2000; Peláez-Campomanes et al. 2000; Vianey-Liaud 1979, 1986.
41. Csiki and Grigorescu 2006b; Weishampel et al. 2004.
42. Titanosaur phylogeny appears to be in the forefront for establishing sau-ropod relationships (see Curry 2001; Curry Rogers and Forster 2001; Salgado et al. 1997; Sanz et al. 1999; Upchurch 1998; Upchurch et al. 2004; Wilson 2002; Wilson and Upchurch 2003), and efforts to put Magyarosaurus into this mix are now underway.
43. Baraboshkin et al. 2003.
44. Buffetaut et al. 1981; Le Loeuff and Buffetaut 1995.
45. Hanken and Wake 1993 and papers cited therein.
46. Lindstedt and Boyce 1985.
47. Boekschoten and Sondaar 1966; J. Brown 1975; Hutchinson 1959; Marshall and Corruccini 1978.
48. Azzaroli 1982; Valverde 1964.
49. Blueweiss et al. 1978; Calder 1984; Peters 1983; Stearns 1983, 1992.
50. Roth 1992.
51. Gould 1977; Roth 1992.
52. Gould and Vrba 1982; Vrba and Gould 1986.
54. Norman and Weishampel 1985; Ostrom 1961, 1964, 1980; Weishampel and Norman 1989; Wing and Tiffney 1987.
55. Bakker 1978, 1986; Norman and Weishampel 1985, 1987, 1991; Weishampel 1985; Weishampel and Norman 1987, 1989.
56. Demment and Van Soest 1985; Janis 1976; Jarman 1974.
57. Demment and Van Soest 1985; Jarman 1974.
58. The monophyly of Euhadrosauria ensures a single migration from Europe.
59. Weishampel 1984.
60. Horner 1999, 2000; Horner and Currie 1994; Horner and Dobb 1997; Horner and Gorman 1988. See also Horner and Weishampel 1988; Weishampel and Horner 1994.
61. Gould 1977; MacArthur and Wilson 1967; McNaughton 1975; Pianka 1970, 1972; Southwood et al. 1974; Stearns 1976, 1983, 1992.
62. Bellemain and Ricklefs 2008.
63. Hoffman and Reif 1988, 1990.
CHAPTER EIGHT. Alice and the End
1. Van Valen 1973a.
2. Bell 1982; Lively 1996.
3. Buckling and Rainey 2002; Dietl 2003; Lovaszi and Moskat 2004.
4. Howard and Lively 2002; Jokela et al. 2000; Kawecki 1998; Martens and Schön 2000; Ridley 1994. For an interesting about-face on the Red Queen hypothesis in interpretations of coevolutionary arms races, see Bergstrom and Lachmann 2003.
5. Barnosky 2001.
6. Futuyma 1998.
7. Tomkins 1996, 444.
8. Tzara 1992, 4.
GLOSSARY
Organismal groups that appear in this glossary are cladistically defined as either stem-based or node-based taxa and diagnosed on the basis of their shared derived characters (synapomorphies). See de Queiroz and Gauthier 1990 for the rationale for this decision. Also included in some of these entries is a reference to a recent comprehensive study of the taxon.
Acromion: A bony spine or process on the outer side of the scapula, to which some of the shoulder musculature is attached. This feature is very prominent in nodosaurid ankylosaurs.
Actinistia: The fleshy-finned fish, cladistically defined as the common ancestor of Miguashaia and Latimeria, and all the descendants of this common ancestor. This clade can be diagnosed by modifications of the appendicular fin skeleton, among other features. The most famous actinistian is the living coelacanth, Latimeria. See also “Coelacanth.”
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