1. Colman Ferrer, interview with the author, Havana, August 25, 1995.
2. Dariel Alarcón Ramírez, “Benigno,” interview with the author, Paris, November 3, 1995.
3. Pablo Ribalta, quoted in Froilan Escobar, Félix Guerra, and Paco Ignacio Taibo II, El año que estuvimos en ninguna parte (Mexico City: Joaquín Mortiz/Planeta, 1994), pp. 242–243.
4. Angel Braguer, “Lino,” interview with the author, Havana, January 24, 1996.
5. Benigno, Vie et mort de la Révolution Cubaine (Paris: Fayard, 1995), p. 107.
6. Oscar Fernández Mell, interview with the author, Havana, August 25, 1995.
7. Ferrer, interview.
8. Ribalta, in Taibo et al., El año, p. 239.
9. Dariel Alarcón Ramírez, “Benigno,” telephone conversation with the author, May 15, 1996.
10. Ulises Estrada, interview with the author, August 23, 1995.
11. Carlos Franqui, Vida aventuras y desastres de un hombre llamado Castro (Mexico City: Planeta, 1988), p. 331.
12. Teodoro Petkoff, telephone conversation with the author, October 1996.
13. Mario Monje, interview with the author, Moscow, October 25, 1995.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid.
19. Protocol number 8 of the Politburo meeting of the Central Committee, June 24, 1966 (Top Secret), Resolution of the International Section of the Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Party, Central Archive for the Conservation of Contemporary Documents, Moscow.
20. Monje, interview.
21. Ibid.
22. Jorge Kolle, interview with the author, Cochabamba, October 29, 1994.
23. Harry Villegas, “El verdadero diario de Pombo,” La Razón (La Paz), October 9, 1996), p. 15.
24. Ibid., p. 18.
25. Jorge Kolle, quoted in Carlos Soria Galvarro, interview with the author, La Paz, November 5, 1994.
26. Eliseo Reyes Rodríguez (“Capitán San Luis”), “Diario de Bolivia,” quoted in Carlos Soria Galvarro, ed., El Che en Bolivia, Documentosy Testimonios, vol. 4 (La Paz: Cedoin, 1994), p. 101.
27. All the quotations in this passage are from Villegas, “El verdadero diario,” p. 21.
28. Ibid., p. 19.
29. Kolle, interview.
30. Ibid.
31. Monje, interview.
32. Benigno, Vie et mort, pp. 126–127.
33. Ibid.
34. Aleksandr Alexeiev, interview with the author, Moscow, October 28, 1995. See also Central Intelligence Agency, Intelligence Information Cable, October 17, 1967, National Security File, Memos to the President, vol. 46, Oct. 16–20, 1967, Doc. no. 68a (Secret), LBJ Library.
35. Humberto Vázquez Viaña and Ramiro Aliaga Saravia, Bolivia: Ensayo de revolutión continental, provisional edition, restricted circulation, July 1970, pp. 18–19.
36. Ibid.
37. Villegas, “El verdadero diario,” p. 23.
38. Benigno, Vie et mort.
39. Luis J. González and Gustavo A. Sánchez Salazar, The Great Rebel: Che Guevara in Bolivia (New York: Grove Press, 1969), p. 48.
40. Daniel James, Che Guevara: Una biografia (Mexico City: Editorial Diana, 1971), pp. 250–251.
41. Benigno, Vie et mort, p. 137.
42. Humberto Vázquez Viaña, “Antecedentes de la guerrilla del Che en Bolivia,” Institute of Latin American Studies, University of Stockholm, research paper, Series no. 46, September 1987, p. 13.
43. Ibid., p. 19.
44. Régis Debray, La guerrilla del Che (Mexico City: Siglo XXI, 1975), p. 44.
45. Central Intelligence Agency, Directorate of Intelligence, Instability in the Western Hemisphere, Memorandum, December 9, 1966 (Secret), Declassified Documents Catalog (Woodbridge, Conn.: Research Publications), vol. 21, no. 2, March/April 1995.
46. Mario Monje, “Carta al Comité Central del Partido Comunista de Bolivia,” La Paz, July 15, 1968, quoted in Soria Galvarro, ed., El Che, vol. 1, p. 117.
47. Reyes Rodríguez, Diario, p. 103.
48. Ernesto Che Guevara, “Diario de Bolivia,” new annotated edition, published in Carlos Soria Galvarro, ed., El Che, vol. 5, p. 71.
49. Villegas, “El verdadero diario,” p. 25.
50. Benigno, interview.
51. Quoted in Inti Peredo, Mi campana con el Che (Mexico City: Editorial Diogenes, 1971), p. 27.
52. Benigno, interview.
53. Gary Prado Salmón, La guerrilla inmolade (Santa Cruz: Grupo Editorial Punto y Coma, 1987), p. 232.
54. Guevara, Diario, p. 88.
55. Régis Debray, Les Masques (Paris: Gallimard, 1987), p. 71.
56. Vázquez Viaña and Aliaga Saravia, Bolivia, p. 84.
57. Prado Salmón, La guerrilla, p. 84.
58. Régis Debray, interview with the author, Paris, November 3, 1995.
59. Debray, Masques, p. 73.
60. “Tamara Bunke, Drei Leben in einer Haut,” Der Spiegel, no. 39, September 23, 1996.
61. Gunther Mannel, interviewed in “Tania beschattete ‘Che’ Guevara,” Welt am Sonntag (Berlin), May 26, 1968.
62. Ibid.
63. Wolfe reiterated this view in the long article about Tania in Der Spiegel, no. 39, September 23, 1996, previously cited.
64. Benigno, telephone conversation with the author, May 15, 1996.
65. Debray, interview.
66. Lino, interview.
67. Benigno, telephone conversation.
68. Lino, interview.
69. Prado Salmón, La guerrilla, p. 95.
70. Gustavo Villoldo, interview with the author, Miami, November 21, 1995.
71. Larry Sternfield, telephone conversation with the author, November 4, 1996.
72. John Tilton, unpublished memoirs, graciously lent to the author by John Tilton.
73. This account also appears in Debray, Masques, and in Adys Cupull and Froilán González, La CIA contra el Che (Havana: Editora Política, 1992), p. 35.
74. Benigno, telephone conversation.
75. Prado Salmón, La guerrilla, p. 100.
76. Ernesto Che Guevara, “Mensaje a la Tricontinental,” quoted in Obra revolucionaria (Mexico, D.F.: Ediciones ERA, 1969), p. 648.
77. General William Tope to General Porter USCINCSO, Department of State Incoming Telegram, April 22, 1967 (Confidential), NSF, Country File, Bolivia, vol. 4, box 8, cable, LBJ Library.
78. Walt Rostow to the President, June 23, 1967 (Secret-Sensitive), copy LBJ Library.
79. Benigno, interview.
80. Estrada, interview.
81. Soria Galvarro, El Che, vol. 4, p. 304.
82. Renán Montero, interview with the author, Havana, August 25, 1995.
83. Ibid.
84. Ibid.
85. Guevara, Diario, p. 158.
86. Ibid., pp. 146, 168.
87. Ibid., p. 188.
88. Mario Monje, interview.
89. Guevara, Diario, pp. 207–208.
90. Ibid., pp. 210–211.
91. Debray, interview.
92. Benigno, interview.
93. Villoldo, interview.
94. Ibid.
95. Walt Rostow to the President, September 5, 1967 (Secret), NSF, Country File, Bolivia, vol. 4, box 8, Memo, LBJ Library.
96. Walt Rostow to the President, October 18, 1967 (Secret).
97. Central Intelligence Agency, Intelligence Information Cable, October 17, 1967 (Secret), National Security File, Memos to the President, vol. 46, Oct. 16–20, 1967, Doc. no. 68a, LBJ Library.
98. National Security Council, Draft Talking Points for the President’s Meeting with Chairman Kosyguin [sic], June 26, 1967 (no classification), National Security File, Country File, USSR, Container 230, Doc. no. 7, LBJ Library.
99. See Jacques Lévesque, L’USSR et la Révolution Cubaine (Paris: Presses de la Fondation Nationale des Sciences Politiques, 1976), p. 157; and Jorge Domínguez, To Make a World Safe for Revolution (Cambridge: Harvard University Pre
ss, 1989), p. 71.
100. Central Intelligence Agency, Intelligence Information Cable, October 17, 1967 (Secret).
101. Oleg Daroussenkov, written communication to the author, Mexico City, December 19, 1996.
102. Ibid.
103. Ibid.
104. Benigno, interview with the author, Paris, November 18, 1996.
105. Francois Maspéro, conversation with the author, Paris, November 9, 1996.
106. Sternfield, telephone conversation.
107. Villoldo, interview.
Chapter 11:
Death and Resurrection
1. See Todd Gitlin, The Sixties: Years of Hope, Days of Rage (New York: Bantam Books, 1993), p. 19.
2. Julio Cortázar, Ultimo Round (Mexico City: Siglo XXI, 1969), p. 94.
3. “A Special Kind of Rebellion,” Fortune, January 1969, pp. 70–71.
4. Terry H. Anderson, The Movement and the Sixties (New York: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. viii.
5. Gitlin, The Sixties, pp. 262–263.
6. Hervé Hamon and Patrick Rothman, Génération (Paris: Editions du Seuil, 1987), p. 125.
7. Pombo, Benigno, and Urbano, “La Quebrada del Yuro,” Recuerdos de un combate, Tricontinental (Havana), July–October 1969, p. 108.
8. Dariel Alarcón Ramírez, “Benigno,” interview with the author, Paris, November 3, 1995.
9. Felix Rodríguez and John Weisman, Shadow Warrior (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1989), p. 163.
10. Arnaldo Saucedo Parada, “No disparen, soy el Che,” private edition, La Paz, 1987.
11. Adys Cupull and Froilán González, La CIA contra el Che (Havana: Editora Politica, 1992), pp. 136–137.
12. Oral History Interview with Douglas Henderson, by Sheldon Stern, for the JFK Library, Weston, Mass., August 30, 1978.
13. John Tilton, phone conversation with the author, Princeton, N.J., November 1995.
14. Gustavo Villoldo, interview with the author, Miami, November 27, 1995.
15. Rodríguez and Weisman, Shadow Warrior, p. 169.
16. Julia Cortés, interview with the author, Vallegrande, October 26, 1994.
17. Anderson, The Movement, p. 89.
18. Hamon and Rothman, Génération, p. 171.
19. George Katsiaficas, The Imagination of the New Left (Boston: South End Press, 1987), p. 57.
20. Anderson, The Movement, p. 95.
21. David Burner, Making Peace with the Sixties (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1996), p. 136.
22. UNESCO Statistical Yearbooks, Paris, 1970, 1982.
23. Eric Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes: The Short Twentieth Century (London: Michael Joseph Ltd., 1994), p. 298.
ALSO BY JORGE G. CASTAÑEDA
UTOPIA UNARMED
The Latin American Left After the Cold War
Castro’s Cuba is isolated; the guerrillas who once spread havoc through Uruguay and Argentina are dead, dispersed, or running for office as moderates. And in 1990, Nicaragua’s Sandinistas were rejected at the polls by their own constituents. Are these symptoms of the fall of the Latin American left? Or are they merely temporary lulls in an ongoing revolution that may yet transform our hemisphere?
This perceptive and richly eventful study by one of Mexico’s most distinguished political scientists tells the story behind the failed movements of the past thirty years while suggesting that the left has a continuing relevance in a continent that suffers from destitution and social inequality.
Latin American Studies/Current Affairs/
0-679-75141-6
Available in Spanish from Vintage Español:
COMPAÑERO,
0-679-78161-7
VINTAGE BOOKS
Available at your local bookstore, or call toll-free to order:
1-800-793-2665 (credit cards only).
FIRST VINTAGE BOOKS EDITION, NOVEMBER 1998
Copyright © 1997 by Jorge G. Castañeda
All rights reserved under International and Pan-American Copyright Conventions. Published in the United States by Vintage Books, a division of Random House, Inc., New York.
Library of Congress Cataloging–in–Publication Data Castañeda, Jorge G., 1953–
Compañero: the life and death of Che Guevara / Jorge G. Castañeda; translated from the Spanish by Marina Castañeda.
p. cm.
eISBN: 978-0-307-55529-8
1. Guevara, Ernesto, 1928–1967.
2. Guerrillas—Latin America—Biography. I. Title.
[F2849.22.G85C282 1998]
980’.03’092—dc 21
[B] 98-26441
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