The Mi’Kmac of Nova Scotia saw the seasonal changes of stars illuminated in the northern sky as a chase in which Muin the bear sought to elude the seven kinds of birds that were hunting him. One of these bird hunters was Ples the passenger pigeon. Muin was the Big Dipper, a set of stars visible throughout the year, while Ples was part of the Boötes constellation, visible only during spring and summer. The group of seven become reduced in number as the stars they represent disappear for the season. Eventually the robin and the chickadee dispatch Muin, and the cycle begins again.14
Most of the European accounts focus on the ways that Indians hunted the pigeons. The Jesuits noted the use of nets in catching pigeons at salt springs in the Finger Lakes region, where up to eight hundred were taken at one haul. When Pehr Kalm arrived in 1749, about eighty years later, he observed Iroquois still using nets at the same salt springs: “The savages in Ondondago had built their huts on the sides of this salt field, and here they had erected sloping nests with a cord attachment leading to the huts where they were sitting; when the pigeons arrived in swarms to eat of this salty soil, the savages pulled the cords, inclosing them in the net, and thus at once secured the entire flock.”15
At Green Bay, Wisconsin, in the mid-1600s, the local Indians strung their nets across long openings in the woods, cut specifically for this purpose. Low-flying pigeons entered the baglike nets, and a waiting hunter would yank the rope and cut off egress. On windy days when the birds streaked low through the forest, many hundreds could be caught in a few hours.16
It has been suggested that the Indian use of nets to catch passenger pigeons was learned from the Europeans. But such a notion seems unwarranted given that various of the nations employed this technology in catching fish long before they ever encountered white people. On the other hand, the intricate setups involving multiple live pigeons as bait that would be utilized by professional pigeon hunters in the 1800s was a Euro-American invention. This distinction seems to be implied by a Cayuga in Ontario who recalled that his people never used “the white man’s method of netting.”17
One of the best accounts describing Native Americans and the pigeons comes from the writings of John Lawson as he explored the interior of the Carolinas in 1701. Unlike most European visitors, whose comments on the local avifauna were restricted to birds that were toothsome or conspicuous, Lawson compiled a much broader list. He distinguished 120 types, including two kinds of blackbirds, two kinds of buntings, thrushes, and swallows. Adding value to the list, he appended his own observations.18
He was tapped by the authorities to lead a small expedition of six Englishmen to reconnoiter a region whose people and features were almost unknown to the outside world. Accompanied by four Indians, the group left Charleston on December 28, 1700, in one large canoe. The party worked its way north and west, aiming for the Indian village of Sapona on the banks of the Yadkin River near the present-day city of Salisbury, North Carolina. Not too many days before they arrived, a number of their horses escaped, and while some members of the party went to fetch them, Lawson and others sought passenger pigeons, which were particularly numerous in that territory: “You may find several Indian Towns, of not above 17 Houses, that have more than 100 Gallons of Pigeons Oil, or Fat; they use it with Pulse, or Bread, as we do Butter, and making the Ground as white as a Sheet with their Dung. The Indians take a Light, and go among them in the Night, and bring away some thousands, killing them with long Poles, as they roost in the Trees. At this time of the Year, the Flocks, as they pass by, in great measure, obstruct the Light of the day.”19 Lawson makes clear that the pigeons do not nest in that area, so all that oil was extracted not from the pudgy squabs but leaner adults.
The Ho Chunks of Wisconsin (formerly known as the Winnebago, at least by whites) lived principally by hunting. Few animals were off-limits, but among those on the proscribed list were skunks, otters, gophers, horses, crows, ravens, and eagles. Passenger pigeons were “chief birds,” members of the same group that included the Thunderbird, or “chief clan.” Hunting for them occurred only when the chief decided to hold a feast, at which time many pigeons were served to the entire tribe. As in other tribes, the chief and his advisers likely waited for the right moment to hold the party: in that period just before the squabs could take wing, when they were at their most delectable. To procure the birds, Ho Chunks entered the rookery with long poles and pushed the squabs from the nest. The pigeons would then be cooked either directly over open flames or in a liquid. At other times, Ho Chunks would acquire birds by gathering those killed by storms.20
The arctic explorer and naturalist Sir John Richardson noted the importance of passenger pigeons to the Indians living on the shores of Lake Winnipeg when he visited Manitoba in 1827. They subsisted on lake sturgeon during the spring spawning runs, and then later in the season on ripened wild rice. But in that period when neither the fish or rice were available, the pigeons became the mainstay of their diets.21
A common thread that weaves through the relations that many tribes had toward passenger pigeons is the prohibition against taking adult birds at nestings. When the Potawatomie had access to a nesting, large numbers would establish temporary camps. The adult pigeons were largely spared, with most of the effort expended to procure squabs. These were either rendered to obtain oil for butter or preserved for future use by smoking and drying.
The Sioux also observed the proscription on shooting nesting adults, as Lafayette Bunnell discovered in 1842. Returning from a business trip, he let the current of the Mississippi River propel his boat homeward to La Crosse, Wisconsin. Not too far upstream of his destination, the eastern shore supported a thick growth of oak. As he approached, he “saw clouds of pigeons settling to roost, when crash, would fall an oak limb, and then a noise would follow like the letting off of steam.” This second sound, he was soon to discover, was the chattering of countless birds. He was not the only observer, however, as he encountered several young Sioux intently studying the roost. They were trying to determine whether the birds had laid eggs. When Bunnell mentioned this later to a local friend, he was told “that the Indians never disturbed pigeons or ducks by shooting at them when nesting, and that the life of a man doing so would not be safe among the Sioux.”22
Members of the Iroquois League were also prepared to enforce the ban on shooting nesting birds. Kalm related the story told by French hunters who had intended to get in some pigeon shooting but were discouraged by local Iroquois. The Indians began with friendly attempts at dissuasion, but these soon became threats when the hunters refused to change their plans. This restriction on the taking of the pigeons was bound up in religion and custom, but it served the practical purpose of keeping the nestings intact long enough for tribal members to fully exploit the resource. Frightening the birds off prematurely by allowing rampant gunfire in their midst would have reduced the take, to the potentially severe detriment of the people.
WE WILL BE FAT FROM DRINKING PIGEON OIL: HUNTS OF THE SENECA
If I ever again hear that there is to be a pigeon hunt, I will try to go there. It is the best fun you ever saw. When we get back, people will not know us—we will be fat from eating squabs and drinking pigeon oil.
—WILLIE GORDON, DESCENDANT OF SENECA CHIEF CORNPLANTER
Indian sites in New York dating from the late Archaic period (4,000 to 10,000 B.C.) have yielded passenger pigeon remains that have enabled archaeologists to reconstruct how the people organized themselves in utilizing the bird. When a pigeon nesting or roosting site was discovered, word spread and groups of Indians would converge on the area. Because these sites would change from year to year, people had no incentive to defend them against use by others, and this fostered societal cooperation. Further, the abundance of the birds also contributed to harmony between tribal clans since no one would come close to exhausting the squab supply. Sharing this information, therefore, with others had no downside and increased the likelihood that the same courtesy would be reciprocated in the future.23 The Sene
cas, one of the original five tribes of the Iroquois, were living embodiments of that model.
The Seneca called the passenger pigeon jah’gowa, or “big bread.” As a seasonal food, the flocks that returned in early spring provided relief from what otherwise was a lean time when community members were often forced to subsist on seed corn. The effort to procure the pigeons became an important activity between the harvesting of the maple syrup and the planting of crops. Except for a few elderly who lacked the stamina to make the trip, villages became empty as families embarked for the pigeon grounds. Much of the detail related to these annual hunts has been preserved through early contact with Europeans and the testimony of tribal members, indigenous and adopted. Seneca memory is further preserved through myths and ceremonies. The Seneca Maple Festival is still celebrated in late March, and the Pigeon Dance continues to be performed.
It was the custom among the Iroquois to replace their losses incurred in war by taking in captives, including settlers and soldiers. If they survived the initial brutality meted out to the vanquished, these newly acquired community members could rise quite high within the tribe. One such abductee was Horatio Jones, whose intelligence and physical strength made him a favorite of his tribe. He later returned to the white community and was appointed by George Washington as an agent and interpreter for the Iroquois, a position he retained for four decades. His talent in rendering Indian words into English earned him respect among the Seneca, and Chief Red Jacket, known for his eloquence, demanded that only Jones translate his orations.
Jones describes a pigeon nesting from the early 1780s. He and his adopted family were visiting his mother’s brother, Chief Cornplanter, when a runner arrived with news: “Pigeons, pigeons!” The birds that year were nesting on the Genesee River.
All was now bustle and confusion, and every person in the village who could bear the fatigue of travel at once set out for the Genesee … As the annual nesting of the pigeons was of great importance to the Indians … runners carried the news to every part of the Seneca country, and the inhabitants singly and in bands, came from as far east as Lake Seneca and as far north as Lake Ontario. Within a few days several hundred men, women, and children gathered in the locality of the pigeon woods.24
Things did not change much with respect to the Seneca and the pigeons over the next ninety years or so. What these hunts were like can be seen with great clarity due to the recollections of several participants who were interviewed by ethnologists. The group was split between those living on the land granted to Cornplanter, the last war chief of the Seneca, and those of the Allegheny Band. Willie Gordon, a trapper and noted bear hunter, said the pigeons arrived during late March and early April in flocks whose beating “wings sounded as thunder. They came as a plague of locusts and devoured every sprouting plant.” When the birds appeared, tribal leaders dispatched scouts to locate the exact nesting grounds. The pigeons could be counted on to utilize forests within a tier of seven northern counties of western Pennsylvania. (The regularity of their presence in one general area runs counter to the periodicity of masting, but perhaps the forests were extensive and diverse enough to produce some quantity of nuts every year. And other types of forage may have been available.) The scouts closely monitored nestings and returned with newly hatched squabs. After inspecting the samples, the chiefs would proclaim “two weeks” or “three weeks.” The condition of the chicks determined when the time was right to pull up stakes and head for pigeon city. Squabs just a few days shy of fledging were at their plumpest, and the fatty morsels were what drew the Seneca.25
Although it seems that almost everyone participated, no one organized the effort. People went “because the pigeon hunt was a good time—just like a fair or picnic.” Lydia Bucktooth told of her family’s decision to participate one year. Her mother had been ill and was reluctant to make the trip, but her father persisted, pointing out the vast nesting was worth seeing once before she died. Despite her infirmity, she acquiesced and joined the family as they canoed and then hiked over rugged terrain to their destination.
The pigeon aficionados traveled on almost every imaginable conveyance. Willie Gordon described the procession. Teams of oxen and horses pulled wagons filled with families and such assorted equipment as “axes, guns, cooking utensils … and barrels or bark casks for placing the squabs.” Some boarded trains for part of the way, while others floated downstream in rafts or canoes. And lacking any other option, there were even those who made the whole trip on foot.
Even when tribes knew the condition of the hatchlings and could plan their trip to coincide with the optimal time, traveling still lacked strict organization. The families did select a leader, someone well respected and a good speaker who could deliver the customary prayers of thankfulness at the beginning and the end of the day. He made sure the procession to and from the pigeon grounds was orderly, and he divvied up camping sites among the families. (This person received no extra squabs or other compensation for his efforts.) When their destination was reached, they erected three-sided lean-tos to shelter them for the duration of the hunt. Hemlock boughs formed both the waterproof roof of the exterior and the soft beds tucked as deeply into the shanties as possible. A fire at the opening provided some warmth.
These practical necessities were embodied in myths that kept the rules intact for those who used them during the pigeon times. For us, they are a portal into the past. The Seneca assigned human attributes to many animals, and they saw an affinity with the passenger pigeons in that the birds also lived in large gatherings. Many tribes held that albino animals of all species possessed special powers, and the passenger pigeon was no exception. Chauncy Johnny John stated the rule regarding albino passenger pigeons: “Never disturb him, and never cut down a tree in which a white pigeon has nested.”
In Seneca mythology, the White Pigeon, an aged albino, was chief of all the pigeons. In one version, he visited the venerated warrior Wild Cat, and in another, an upstanding young man who had not yet been sullied by the temptations of life. But in both stories the message was the same. To Wild Cat, White Pigeon said, “All the various tribes of birds had held council and decided that the wild pigeons would furnish a tribute to mankind, because their Maker had selected the wild pigeons for this important duty … Other birds had very little to give … because … [they lived] dispersed here and there, and could be obtained only with difficulty.” Though the Maker had bestowed the pigeons as a gift unto mankind, the receipt of this largesse carried with it responsibilities: the pigeons could only be harvested at the proper time and in the proper way. Principally this meant that only the squabs could be killed; the adults on the nesting grounds would be spared so they could breed again and create new generations. And a “superintendent” was appointed over the community to ensure that the travels and hunts were conducted orderly and safely.
In the presence of the young man, White Pigeon repeated his assurances: “We have no protest to make against your coming to this place to obtain the young whose bodies resemble ours … You must know, too, that Our Maker has ordained that this our flesh shall be for the welfare and contentment of human beings dwelling on the earth.” Although “full of joy” for being selected to serve humans in this way, White Pigeon explained that his people were displeased that so many of the humans present had forgotten Him who has created all and “think only evil things to please themselves.” For their own good they should jettison their bad thoughts, for otherwise they will surely encounter misfortune. But White Pigeon brought other admonitions also: it was essential that the humans enjoy themselves, and the way to achieve that was through song and a particular dance; offerings of tobacco and personal artifacts must be made to the pigeons and the Creator; and “you and my people must unite … when we make this prayer and request of the Creator of our bodies.”
While the Senecas were engaged with pigeons, all other business was put on hold. The Friends’ Indian School in Quaker Bridge, New York, closed from mid-April to early May so the stude
nts could help their parents with the making of maple sugar and the collecting of squabs. In the spring of 1791, Colonel Thomas Proctor also learned how important pigeon time was to the Seneca. As a representative of the federal government, he was in the area to meet with the tribal chiefs to get help in contacting other groups farther south. But he was informed that there would be no convening that day for the pigeons had arrived and the Seneca considered it their duty to honor the Great Spirit for his generosity by holding a great celebration.
Proctor soon joined in the festivities, where he met a major chief for dinner. The women were dressed in their finery, adorned with silver, and they served a feast that relied heavily on pigeons:
Some boiled, some stewed, and the mode of dishing them was, that a hank of six were tied with a deer’s sinews around their necks, their bills pointing outwards; they were plucked but of pen feathers plenty remained; the inside was taken out, but it appeared from the soup made of them, that water had not touched them before. The repast being the best I had seen for a long time, I ate of it very heartily, and the entertainment was given with the appearance of much hospitality.
The hordes of both people and pigeons created the perfect venue for the top archers of each group to strut their stuff. They used bows made of white ash or hickory, seasoned with repeated applications of hot oil. Rawhide rolled into perfect roundness became the strings. The arrows had round heads for knocking the squabs from the nest.
Most of the squabs were gathered by a much less artful method than archery. After breakfast, families from both camps spread out through the nesting, in search of squabs. Each small unit worked independently of the others, and there was no sharing of the pigeons. But within families was a division of labor, as men cut the smaller trees and the women and children collected eggs from the now-accessible nests. As the squabs scurried in all directions, they were pursued by adults and children alike. The chicks would be dispatched by blows to the head, or if in the hand, by pinching their skulls or wrenching their necks. Processing consisted of removing the crops and intestines immediately, for otherwise the meat would quickly spoil. The squabs would then be salted in elm casks or stone crocks.
A Feathered River Across the Sky Page 6