7. If he submits his opinion to the judgement of those who, alone, have the right of making and repealing laws,
8. And meanwhile acts in nowise contrary to that law, he has deserved well of the state, and has behaved as a good citizen should;
9. But if he accuses the authorities of injustice, and stirs up the people against them,
10. Or seditiously strives to abrogate the law without their consent, he is merely an agitator and rebel.
11. Thus we see how people may declare and teach what they believe, without injury to the authority of their rulers, or to the public peace;
12. Namely, by leaving in their hands the power of legislation as it affects action,
13. And by doing nothing against their laws, though they be compelled often to act in contradiction to what they believe, and openly feel, to be best.
14. Such a course can be taken without detriment to justice and dutifulness, nay, it is the one which a just and dutiful person would adopt.
15. Hence, so long as people act in obedience to the laws of the rulers, they in nowise contravene their reason,
16. For in obedience to reason they transferred the right of controlling some of their actions to the rulers.
17. From freedom of thought and expression inconveniences may sometimes arise,
18. But what question was ever settled so wisely that no abuses could possibly spring therefrom?
19. Whoever seeks to regulate everything by law is more likely to arouse vices than to reform them.
20. It is best to grant what cannot be abolished, even though it be in itself harmful.
21. How many evils spring from luxury, envy, avarice, drunkenness and the like,
22. Yet these are tolerated – vices as they are – because they cannot be prevented by legal enactments.
23. How much more then should free thought be granted, seeing that it is in itself a virtue and that it cannot be crushed!
Chapter 3
1. Besides, the evil results can easily be checked, not to mention that such freedom is necessary for progress in science and the liberal arts:
2. For people do not follow such pursuits to advantage unless their judgement be entirely free and unhampered.
3. But let it be granted that freedom may be crushed, and people be so bound down, that they do not dare to utter a whisper, save at the bidding of their rulers;
4. Nevertheless this can never be carried to the pitch of making them think according to authority,
5. So that the necessary consequences would be that people would daily be thinking one thing and saying another,
6. To the corruption of mutual trust, that mainstay of government, and to the fostering of flattery and perfidy,
7. Whence spring stratagems, and the corruption of every good art.
Chapter 4
1. It is possible by violence and its threat to impose uniformity of speech, but not where freedom otherwise lives;
2. For there the more that rulers strive to curtail freedom of speech, the more obstinately are they resisted;
3. Not indeed by the avaricious, the flatterers, and those who think that goodness consists in filling their stomachs and purses,
4. But by those whom good education, sound morality and virtue have rendered more free.
5. People resent the branding as criminal of opinions they believe to be true,
6. And the proscription as wicked of that which inspires them to morality;
7. Hence they are ready to forswear the laws and conspire against the authorities,
8. Thinking it not shameful but honourable to stir up seditions and perpetuate any crime with this end in view.
9. Such being the constitution of human nature, we see that laws directed against opinions affect the generous-minded rather than the wicked,
10. And are adapted less for coercing criminals than for offending the upright;
11. So that they cannot be maintained without great peril to the state.
12. Moreover, such laws are almost always useless, for those who hold that the opinions proscribed are sound, cannot possibly obey the law;
13. Whereas those who already reject them as false, accept the law as a kind of privilege,
14. And make such boast of it that authority is powerless to repeal it, even if such a course be subsequently desired.
15. And, lastly, how many divisions have arisen from the attempt of authorities to decide by law the intricacies of opinion!
16. If people were not allured by the hope of getting the law and the authorities on their side,
17. Of triumphing over their adversaries in the sight of an applauding multitude,
18. And of acquiring honourable distinctions, they would not strive so maliciously, nor would such fury sway their minds.
19. This is taught not only by reason but by daily examples,
20. For laws of this kind prescribing what all the people shall think and forbidding anyone to speak or write to the contrary, have often been passed,
21. As concessions to the anger of those who cannot tolerate people of enlightenment and freedom,
22. And who, by such harsh and crooked enactments, can easily turn the loyalty of the masses into fury and direct it against whom they will.
23. How much better would it be to restrain popular anger, instead of passing inutile laws which can only be broken by those who love virtue and the liberal arts,
24. Thus paring down the state till it is too small to harbour people of talent.
25. What greater misfortune for a state than that honourable people should be sent into exile like criminals because they hold diverse opinions which they cannot disguise?
26. What can be more hurtful than that people who have committed no crime or wickedness should, because they are enlightened, be treated as enemies and put to death,
27. And that the scaffold, the terror of evildoers, should become the arena where the highest examples of tolerance and virtue are displayed to the people with all the marks of ignominy that authority can devise?
28. He that knows himself to be upright does not fear the death of a criminal, and shrinks from no punishment;
29. His mind is not wrung with remorse for any disgraceful deed:
30. He holds that death in a good cause is no punishment, but an honour, and that death for freedom is glory.
31. What purpose then is served by the death of such people, what example is proclaimed?
32. The cause for which they die is unknown to the idle and the foolish, hateful to the turbulent, loved by the upright.
33. The only lesson we can draw from such scenes is to flatter the persecutor, or else to imitate the victim.
Chapter 5
1. If formal assent is not to be esteemed above conviction, and if governments are to retain authority and not be compelled to yield to agitators,
2. It is imperative that freedom of judgement should be granted, so that people may live together in harmony,
3. However diverse, or even openly contradictory their opinions may be.
4. We cannot doubt that such is the best system of government and open to the fewest objections,
5. Since it is the one most in harmony with human nature.
6. In a democracy everyone submits to the control of authority over his actions, but not over his judgement and reason;
7. That is, seeing that all cannot think alike, the voice of the majority has the force of law, subject to repeal if circumstances bring about a change of opinion.
8. In proportion as the power of free judgement is withheld we depart from the natural condition of humanity, and the government becomes more tyrannical.
9. Laws seeking to settle controversies of opinion and outlook are more likely to irritate than to reform, and thus can give rise to extreme licence.
10. Further, it was seen that divisions do not originate in a love of truth, which is a source of courtesy and gentleness,
11. But rather in an inordinate desire for sup
remacy.
12. From all these considerations it is clearer than the sun at noonday,
13. That controversialists are those who condemn other men’s writings, and seditiously stir up the quarrelsome masses against their authors, rather than those authors themselves,
14. Who generally write only for the learned, and appeal solely to reason.
15. Thus the real disturbers of the peace are those who, in a free state, seek to curtail the liberty of thought and expression,
16. Which they are unable to tyrannise over as they can with people’s actions.
Chapter 6
1. Among those who have studied the ways of government and rulers, there is much practical wisdom,
2. Which applies as much to the rule of what is less than a state than to states themselves.
3. Nothing makes leaders more esteemed than undertaking great enterprises and setting a fine example,
4. Or anyway an unusual example, gaining for themselves the reputation of being remarkable individuals.
5. A leader is also respected when he is either a true friend or a severe enemy,
6. When, without any reservation, he declares himself in favour of one party against the other;
7. Which course will always be more advantageous than standing neutral,
8. Because if others come into conflict, and are of such a character that one has either to fear the winner or not,
9. It will always be more advantageous to declare oneself and contend strenuously;
10. For those who win do not want doubtful friends, and those who lose will not befriend one who stood by as they endeavoured.
11. It will always happen that those who are not one’s friend will demand one’s neutrality,
12. While those who are one’s friend will entreat one to side withthem.
13. And irresolute leaders, to avoid present difficulties, generally follow a neutral path,
14. And are generally therefore ruined. But when a leader declares himself gallantly in favour of one side, if the party with whom he allies himself conquers,
15. Although the victor may be powerful and may have him at his mercy, yet he is indebted to him, and there is established a bond of amity;
16. And people are rarely so shameless as to become a monument of ingratitude later.
17. Victories after all are never so complete that the victor must not show some regard, especially to justice.
18. But if he with whom one allies oneself loses, one may be sheltered by him, and while he is able he may aid one, and become a companion to a fortune that may rise again.
19. In the second case, when those who fight are of such a character that one has no anxiety as to who may win, so much the more is it greater prudence to be allied.
20. But let it be noted that a leader ought to take care never to make an alliance with one more powerful than himself for the purposes of contending with others, unless necessity compels him;
21. Because if the more powerful leader wins, one is at his discretion,
22. And leaders ought to avoid as much as possible being at the discretion of anyone.
23. Never let any government imagine that it can choose perfectly safe courses.
24. Rather let it expect to have to take very doubtful courses, because it is found in ordinary affairs that one never seeks to avoid one trouble without running into another;
25. But prudence consists in knowing how to distinguish the character of troubles, and for choice to take the lesser evil.
Chapter 7
1. A leader ought to show himself a patron of ability, and to honour the proficient in every art.
2. At the same time he should encourage his followers to practise their callings peaceably,
3. And make them know that there is no risk that the reward of their efforts will be denied them or taken from them,
4. But they will receive reward and the enjoyment from it freely.
5. Further, he ought to fete his followers at convenient times, and show himself an example of courtesy and liberality;
6. Nevertheless, always maintaining the right relationship of his position,
7. For too great familiarity loosens the bonds between leader and led, and in the end undoes both.
Chapter 8
1. The leader must consider how to avoid what will make him disliked or contemptible, so that he need fear no reproach.
2. It makes him most disliked to be selfish, and to ignore the feelings and wishes of those he leads.
3. When neither the position nor the pride of followers is impugned, the majority of them are content,
4. And the leader has only to contend with the ambition of a few, to whom he can respond with ease in many ways.
5. It makes him contemptible to be considered fickle, frivolous, mean-hearted, irresolute, from all of which a leader should guard himself as from a rock;
6. And he should endeavour to show in his actions courage, fortitude and magnanimity;
7. And in his private dealings with his subjects let him show that his judgements are firm,
8. And maintain himself in such reputation that no one can hope either to deceive him or to persuade him against doing what is right.
9. That leader is esteemed who conveys this impression of himself, and he who is esteemed is not easily conspired against;
10. For, provided it is well known that he is an excellent man and revered by his people, he can only be attacked with difficulty.
11. For this reason a leader ought to have two fears, one from within, on account of his followers, the other from without, on account of external circumstances.
12. From the latter he is defended by being well prepared and having good allies.
13. If he is well prepared he will have good friends, and affairs will always remain quiet within when they are quiet without.
14. And even should affairs outside be disturbed, if he has carried out his preparations and has conducted himself honourably,
15. As long as he does not despair, he will resist every difficulty that his own powers and resource can overcome.
16. But concerning his followers, when affairs outside are disturbed he has only to fear that they will turn against him secretly,
17. From which a leader can easily secure himself by keeping the fidelity of his followers, which is in turn secured by keeping them properly satisfied with him.
18. For this reason a leader ought to reckon disaffections of little account when his followers hold him in esteem;
19. But when they are hostile to him, and bear hatred towards him, he ought to fear everything and everybody.
20. And well-ordered states and wise leaders have taken every care not to drive the other senior people to opposition, and to keep the people satisfied and contented,
21. For this is one of the most important objects a leader can have.
22. Neither could there be a better or a more prudent arrangement, or a greater source of security for a leader,
23. Than that he ought to leave affairs of reproach to be managed by others, while keeping those of grace in his own hands.
24. Let others make recriminations, give unwelcome orders, make dismissal or demotion;
25. The leader should be the one to reward and praise.
Chapter 9
1. The choice of assistants is of the greatest importance to a leader, and their worth is according to his powers of discrimination.
2. Here is his primary skill, in appointing good assistants to manage his affairs.
3. For the first opinion one forms of a leader, and of his understanding, is by observing those he has around him;
4. When they are capable and faithful he may always be considered wise, because he has known how to recognise the capable and to keep them faithful;
5. But when they are otherwise one cannot form a good opinion of him, for the prime error he made was in choosing them.
6. But to enable a leader to form an opinion of his assistant there is
one test that never fails;
7. When he sees the assistant thinking more of his own interests than of his leader’s,
8. And seeking inwardly his own profit in everything, such a one will never make a good assistant, nor will he ever be trustworthy;
9. For he who has the state of another in his hands ought never to think of himself, but always of his principal,
10. And never pay any attention to matters in which the leader is not concerned.
11. But to keep his assistant faithful the leader ought to study him, honouring him, advancing him,
12. Doing him kindnesses, rewarding him well and sharing his plans and cares.
13. At the same time let him see that the assistant cannot stand alone,
14. So that rewards and praises may not make him desire more than both, and that cares may not make him timid.
15. When, therefore, leaders and their assistants are thus disposed, they can trust each other,
16. But when it is otherwise, the outcome will always be unsatisfactory for one or the other.
Chapter 10
1. In order to know how wrong is sometimes done by those who lead,
2. Hear what is said by advisers who teach leaders that they must sometimes do wrong in order to lead.
3. They say: ‘Everyone admits how praiseworthy it is in a leader to keep faith, and to live with integrity and not with craft.
4. ‘Yet history shows that those leaders who have done great things have held good faith of little account, and in the end have overcome any who relied on their word.
5. ‘There are two ways of resolving disputes, the one by agreement, the other by contest; the first method is proper to mankind, the second to beasts.
6. ‘But because the first has frequently proved insufficient, men have often taken recourse to the second.
7. ‘Therefore it is necessary to understand how leaders are apt to conduct themselves in both ways as appropriate.
8. ‘A wise leader cannot, nor ought he to, keep faith when such observance may be turned against him, and when the reasons that caused him to pledge it exist no longer.
9. ‘If men were entirely good this precept would not hold, but because they are often bad, and will not keep faith with each other, no one is bound to keep faith when it is injurious to himself.
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