8.Kara Miles Turner, “‘Liberating Lifescripts’: Prince Edward County, Virginia, and the Roots of Brown v. Board of Education,” in From the Grassroots to the Supreme Court: Prince Edward County, Virginia, and the Roots of Brown v. Board of Education, ed. Peter F. Lau (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2004), 95; John Stokes with Lois Wolfe and Herman J. Viola, Students on Strike: Jim Crow, Civil Rights, Brown, and Me: A Memoir (Washington, DC: National Geographic, 2008), 54–62; Smith, They Closed Our Schools, 32–33.
9.Barbara Rose Johns Powell, handwritten account held by the Robert Russa Moton Museum, Farmville, VA; Stokes, Students on Strike, 71.
10.Stokes, Students on Strike, 54–62; Smith, They Closed Our Schools, 32–33.
11.Stokes, Students on Strike, 63–68; Davenport Jones, speech in Above the Storm, 90.
12.Stokes, Students on Strike, 63–68, 75, 78; Richard Wormser, The Rise and Fall of Jim Crow (New York: St. Martin’s, 2003), 180; Smith, They Closed Our Schools, 40–42.
13.“The Lonely Hero of Virginia School Fight,” Jet, May 18, 1961, 20–24; “The Shame and the Glory,” Christian Century, August 15, 1962, 977; Smith, They Closed Our Schools, 7, 11–13.
14.Smith, They Closed Our Schools, 43, 45–46; Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America’s Struggle for Equality (New York: Random House, 1975), 473; and, more generally, Genna Rae McNeil, Groundwork: Charles Hamilton Houston and the Struggle for Civil Rights (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983); and Kenneth Mack, “Law and Mass Politics in the Making of the Civil Rights Lawyer, 1931–1941,” Journal of American History 93, no. 1 (June 2006): 60.
15.Smith, They Closed Our Schools, 47–48.
16.Ibid., 51–54.
17.Smith, They Closed Our Schools, 9, 58–59; Branch, Parting the Waters, 470–79.
18.Stokes, Students on Strike, 106.
19.Orth, “Going Public,” C1; Smith, They Closed Our Schools, 75–76; Stokes, Students on Strike, 102–3, 107.
20.Smith, Managing White Supremacy.
21.James H. Hershman Jr., “A Rumbling in the Museum: The Opponents of Virginia’s Massive Resistance” (PhD diss., University of Virginia, 1978), 28.
22.Mark Whitman, Brown v. Board of Education: A Documentary History (Princeton, NJ: Markus Wiener, 2004), 80–81; Kluger, Simple Justice, 482–84. Kenneth Clark thought Garrett “a model of mediocrity” as a professor (Kluger, 502).
23.Numan V. Bartley, The Rise of Massive Resistance: Race and Politics During the 1950s (1969; repr., Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1997), 114–15.
24.The literature here is voluminous, from older classics such as James T. Ely Jr., The Crisis of Conservative Virginia: The Byrd Organization and the Politics of Massive Resistance (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1996), to newer works such as Smith, Managing White Supremacy. To my reading, Hershman’s “A Rumbling in the Museum” best captures the contingency of the moment and the dynamics of the moderate challenge that was assembling by the 1950s. See also Matthew D. Lassiter and Andrew B. Lewis, eds., The Moderates’ Dilemma: Massive Resistance to School Desegregation in Virginia (Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1998).
25.Philip J. Hilts, “The Saga of James J. Kilpatrick,” Potomac Magazine (Washington Post), September 16, 1973, 15, 69; Robert Gaines Corley, “James Jackson Kilpatrick: The Evolution of a Southern Conservative, 1955–1965” (unpublished MA thesis, University of Virginia, 1970), 7; William P. Hustwit, James J. Kilpatrick: Salesman for Segregation (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2013), 29–31, 39–40; donkey quote from Hollinger F. Barnard, ed., Outside the Magic Circle: The Autobiography of Virginia Foster Durr (Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 1985), 314.
26.Editorial, Richmond News Leader, May 7, 1951.
27.Gene Roberts and Hank Klibanoff, The Race Beat: The Press, the Civil Rights Struggle, and the Awakening of a Nation (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006), 70–72.
28.Bartley, Rise of Massive Resistance, 128–29. For the original arguments, see H. Lee Cheek Jr., ed., John C. Calhoun: Selected Writings and Speeches (Washington, DC: Regnery, 2003); for a classic explication that holds up well, see Richard N. Current, “John C. Calhoun, Philosopher of Reaction,” Antioch Review 3 (1943).
29.Joseph J. Thorndike, “‘The Sometimes Sordid Level of Race and Segregation’: James J. Kilpatrick and the Virginia Campaign Against Brown,” in The Moderates’ Dilemma, 51–71.
30.James J. Kilpatrick, The Southern Case for School Segregation (New York: Crowell-Collier Press, 1962), 8; Hilts, “Saga of James J. Kilpatrick,” 69; Garrett Epps, “The Littlest Rebel: James J. Kilpatrick and the Second Civil War,” Constitutional Commentary 10 (1993): 19.
31.James J. Kilpatrick, “Nine Men, or 36 States?” in Interposition: Editorials and Editorial Page Presentations, 1955–1956 (Richmond, VA: Richmond News Leader, 1956); Hilts, “Saga of James J. Kilpatrick,” 72.
32.Thorndike, “‘The Sometimes Sordid Level,’” 51–59; Hustwit, James J. Kilpatrick, 45–49.
33.Hershman, “A Rumbling in the Museum,” 46–47, 88–89, 115–17.
34.“Virginia’s Senator Harry Byrd,” Time, August 17, 1962, 11–15; Edward P. Morgan and the News, transcript, American Broadcasting Network, October 9, 1958, Louise O. Wensel Papers, Special Collections Department, Manuscript Division, University of Virginia Library, Charlottesville; see also October 27, 1958, transcript.
35.Edward P. Morgan and the News, transcript, October 9, 1958; “Virginia’s Senator Harry Byrd.” For the stark exploitation allowed by such programs, see the pathbreaking study by Cindy Hahamovitch, No Man’s Land: Jamaican Guestworkers in America and the Global History of Deportable Labor (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2013).
36.For a recent, hard-hitting summary of “the Byrdocracy,” see chapter 11 of Brent Tarter, The Grandees of Government: The Origins and Persistence of Undemocratic Politics in Virginia (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2013), 281–304; James H. Hershman Jr., private communication to author, August 2, 2013.
37.Nick Kotz, Judgment Days: Lyndon Baines Johnson, Martin Luther King Jr., and the Laws That Changed America (New York: Houghton Mifflin, 2003), 36; Robert Caro, The Passage of Power (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2012), 466, 468–69.
38.Steven F. Lawson, Black Ballots: Voting Rights in the South, 1944–1969 (1976; repr., Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 1999), 14–15; C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South, 1877–1913 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1951), 345; James H. Hershman Jr., “Massive Resistance Meets Its Match: The Emergence of a Pro-Public Education Majority,” in The Moderates’ Dilemma, 104–5, 109; J. Douglas Smith, On Democracy’s Doorstep: The Inside Story of How the Supreme Court Brought “One Person, One Vote” to the United States (New York: Hill & Wang, 2014), 19.
39.Frank B. Atkinson, The Dynamic Dominion: Realignment and the Rise of Virginia’s Republican Party Since 1945 (Fairfax, VA: George Mason University Press, 1992), 4; Key, Southern Politics in State and Nation, 19–20.
40.See Smith, Managing White Supremacy.
41.Tarter, Grandees of Government.
42.“Virginia Outlaws Closed-Shop Pacts,” New York Times, January 19, 1947, 4. Thanks to James H. Hershman Jr. for sending me this story.
43.This practice is captured well in Edward H. Peeples, Scalawag: A White Southerner’s Journey Through Segregation to Human Rights Activism (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2014).
44.Harry F. Byrd to James Kilpatrick, November 8, 1957, box 245, Harry Flood Byrd Sr. Papers; Byrd to Kilpatrick, July 26, 1957, box 413, ibid.; Byrd to Kilpatrick, December 23, 1955, box 7, series B, James J. Kilpatrick Papers, Special Collections Department, University of Virginia Library (hereafter cited as JJKP).
45.James Kilpatrick
to Harry Flood Byrd, December 26, 1955, box 7, series B, JJKP; Roberts and Klibanoff, The Race Beat, 109, 111, 116–19; Joseph Crespino, Strom Thurmond’s America (New York: Hill & Wang, 2012), 105–7.
46.Hershman, “A Rumbling in the Museum,” 188, 189–90, 208–9, 214, 263; American Jewish Congress, Assault upon Freedom of Association: A Study of the Southern Attack on the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (New York: American Jewish Congress, 1957), 27–29. For fuller discussion, see the classic treatment by Benjamin Muse, Virginia’s Massive Resistance (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1961).
47.Among other sources, see the reports in James R. Sweeney, ed., Race, Reason, and Massive Resistance: The Diary of David J. Mays, 1954–1959 (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 2008), 167, 168, 178, 190.
48.Smith, Managing White Supremacy, 278, 285–88, 294–95; record group 2/1/2, Board of Visitors Files for 1956, 1957, and 1958, box 9, Office of the President, Papers of the President of the University of Virginia, Office Administrative Files, Manuscripts Division, Alderman Library, University of Virginia; Colgate Darden: Conversations with Guy Friddell (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1978), 103–5, also 175.
CHAPTER 2: A COUNTRY BOY GOES TO THE WINDY CITY
1.James M. Buchanan, Better than Plowing and Other Personal Essays (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992), 1, 19, 25. My depiction of Middle Tennessee comes from a gem of national heritage enabled by the New Deal: the Federal Writers’ Project collection of state studies. I used The WPA Guide to Tennessee (1939; repr., Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1986).
2.Buchanan, Better than Plowing, 1; Wilma Dykeman, Tennessee: A Bicentennial History (New York: W. W. Norton, 1975), 167–68; Carlton C. Sims, A History of Rutherford County (Murfreesboro, TN: privately published), 210; Manuscript Census, 1920, 1940 (accessed online), and additional information courtesy of the Rutherford County Archives and Kelley Lawton of Duke Libraries. For a very different view of an African American journalist who grew up just down the road in Middle Tennessee, see the tellingly titled work by Carl Rowan, South of Freedom (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1952).
3.Buchanan, Better than Plowing, 2; Sims, History of Rutherford County, 210; Manuscript Census, 1920, 1940 (accessed online), and additional information courtesy of the Rutherford County Archives and Kelley Lawton.
4.Buchanan, Better than Plowing, 1; Karin A. Shapiro, A New South Rebellion: The Battle Against Convict Labor in the Tennessee Coalfields, 1871–1896 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 8, 108, 246.
5.Buchanan, Better than Plowing, 1, 5, 26–27.
6.Shapiro, New South Rebellion, 2, 47, 109, 139, 235, 242, 243.
7.Buchanan, Better than Plowing, 21, 30.
8.Shapiro, New South Rebellion, 8–9, 11, 90, 93, 133, 186, 196.
9.Dykeman, Tennessee, 133–34, 148; Buchanan, Better than Plowing, 1, 2, 5, 19, 21, 37.
10.Buchanan, Better than Plowing, 1–3, 75, 126; Robert D. Hershey Jr., “An Austere Scholar: James McGill Buchanan,” New York Times, October 17, 1986; Hartmut Kliemt remarks at James M. Buchanan Memorial Conference, George Mason University, September 28, 2013 (author’s notes).
11.Twelve Southerners, I’ll Take My Stand: The South and the Agrarian Tradition (1930; repr., Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977); R. Blakeslee Gilpin, John Brown Still Lives! America’s Long Reckoning with Violence, Equality, & Change (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2011), 120; Dykeman, Tennessee, 177. For the rich and varied internal dissent, see Glenda Elizabeth Gilmore, Defying Dixie: The Radical Roots of Civil Rights, 1919–1950 (New York: W. W. Norton, 2009).
12.Gilpin, John Brown Still Lives!, quotes on 123, 124, 127, 141, 143; Buchanan, Better than Plowing, 126. See also Paul V. Murphy, The Rebuke of History: The Southern Agrarians and American Conservative Thought (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001).
13.Donald Davidson, The Attack on Leviathan: Regionalism and Nationalism in the United States (1938; repr., Gloucester, MA: Peter Smith, 1962), 5, 10, 12, 26. For illuminating discussion, see Murphy, Rebuke of History, 92–113.
14.Buchanan, Better than Plowing, 25, 171; Jane Seaberry, “GMU Teacher Wins Nobel in Economics,” Washington Post, October 17, 1986.
15.Davidson, Attack on Leviathan, 163, 168.
16.Buchanan, Better than Plowing, 49.
17.Ibid., 4, 49–50. For contrast with a white working-class southerner whose experience of prejudice in the North led him to identify with the black freedom struggle, see Edward H. Peeples with Nancy MacLean, Scalawag: A White Southerner’s Journey Through Segregation to Human Rights Activism (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2014).
18.James M. Buchanan, “Afraid to Be Free: Dependency as Desideratum,” first draft, Buchanan House Archives, Center for Study of Public Choice, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA (hereafter cited as BHA), 9, later published in Public Choice 120, no. 3 (September 2004). For contrast, see W. E. B. Du Bois, Black Reconstruction in America: An Essay toward a History of the Part which Black Folk Played in the Attempt to Reconstruct Democracy in America, 1860–1880 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1935), quote on 726—and just about any reputable work on Reconstruction published since the 1960s.
19.Rob van Horn and Philip Mirowski, “The Rise of the Chicago School of Economics and the Birth of Neoliberalism,” in The Road from Mont Pelerin: The Making of the Neoliberal Thought Collective, ed. Philip Mirowski and Dieter Plehwe (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2009), 169n5.
20.Buchanan, Better than Plowing, 1–4, 66.
21.Ibid., 68.
22.Ibid., 24, 77, 79; George J. Stigler, typescript tribute to Frank Knight, May 24, 1972, BHA.
23.Buchanan, Better than Plowing, 5, 70, 72. On Chicago social history in these years, see Meg Jacobs, Pocketbook Politics: Economic Citizenship in Twentieth-Century America (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2005); Laura McEnaney, World War II’s “Postwar”: A Social and Policy History of Peace, 1944–1953 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, forthcoming, 2017).
24.Jacobs, Pocketbook Politics, 221–37; Patricia Sullivan, Days of Hope: Race and Democracy in the New Deal Era (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996).
25.Milton Friedman and Rose D. Friedman, Two Lucky People: Memoirs (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), 158–61; Richard Cockett, Thinking the Unthinkable: Think-Tanks and the Economic Counter-Revolution, 1931–1983 (London: HarperCollins, 1995), 110; additional description from www.du-parc.ch/en/heritage.
26.Daniel Stedman Jones, Masters of the Universe: Hayek, Friedman, and the Birth of Neoliberal Politics (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2012), 57.
27.Cockett, Thinking the Unthinkable, 4, 28, 31, 97; Alan Ebenstein, Friedrich Hayek: A Biography (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001), 231.
28.Quotes from Kim Phillips-Fein, Invisible Hands: The Making of the Conservative Movement from the New Deal to Reagan (New York: W. W. Norton, 2009), 41; George H. Nash, The Conservative Intellectual Movement in America, Since 1945 (1976; repr., Wilmington, DE: Intercollegiate Studies Institute, 1996), 5; Cockett, Thinking the Unthinkable, 100–101; Angus Burgin, The Great Persuasion: Reinventing Free Markets Since the Depression (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2012), 89. See also van Horn and Mirowski, “The Rise of the Chicago School,” 147, 150–51.
29.Friedrich A. Hayek, The Road to Serfdom (Chicago: University of Chicago, 1944); Cockett, Thinking the Unthinkable, 5.
30.Hayek, Road to Serfdom, 4–6.
31.Ibid., 7, 35.
32.Ibid., 13, 16, 17, 19.
33.Phillips-Fein, Invisible Hands, 5, 322.
34.Ibid., 41–42; van Horn and Mirowski, “The Rise of the Chicago School,” 139–68; Alan O. Ebenstein, Milton Friedman: A Biograph
y (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007), 139. For the ironic evolution of the fund, see Michael J. McVicar, “Aggressive Philanthropy: Progressivism, Conservatism, and the William Volker Charities Fund,” Missouri Historical Review 105 (2011): 191–212.
35.Hayek, Road to Serfdom, 262; Cockett, Thinking the Unthinkable, 89; Burgin, Great Persuasion, 103, 107–8; for Keynes’s full comment, see Stedman Jones, Masters of the Universe, 67. Burgin’s book deftly charts the society’s change over time to more full-throated, unequivocal advocacy.
36.Friedman and Friedman, Two Lucky People, 158–61; Dieter Plehwe, introduction to Road from Mont Pelerin, 3–25.
37.R. M. Hartwell, History of the Mont Pelerin Society (Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1995), xii; Friedman and Friedman, Two Lucky People, 161.
38.Buchanan, Better than Plowing, 75; Stigler, tribute to Knight. For an excellent overview, see the collection edited by Robert van Horn, Philip Mirowski, and Thomas A. Stapleford, Building Chicago Economics: New Perspectives on the History of America’s Most Powerful Economics Program (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2011).
39.Buchanan, Better than Plowing, 16, 94–95. On Nutter, see John H. Moore, “Gilbert Warren Nutter,” American National Biography Online, February 2000; William Breit, “Creating the ‘Virginia School’: Charlottesville as an Academic Environment in the 1960s,” Economic Inquiry 25 (October 1987): 648–49.
40.Buchanan, Better than Plowing, 5, 70, 72.
41.James M. Buchanan, Economics from the Outside In: “Better than Plowing” and Beyond (College Station: Texas A&M Press, 2007), 195.
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