Just a few of the more specialized studies on Alexander that I would recommend are Waldemar Heckel’s Who’s Who in the Age of Alexander the Great, a useful book for keeping straight the many Persians and Macedonians who inconveniently bear the same name. Frank Holt’s works on Alexander in Bactria and India are marvelous guides to the eastern campaigns, especially his Into the Land of Bones: Alexander the Great in Afghanistan. Important recent scholarship on ancient Persia includes Amélie Kuhrt’s collection of primary sources in The Persian Empire, Pierre Briant’s monumental study From Cyrus to Alexander, and Lindsay Allen’s The Persian Empire. For the afterlife of Alexander and his legend, the books of Richard Stoneman are essential.
Allen, Lindsay. The Persian Empire. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2005.
Andronicos, Manolis. Vergina: The Royal Tombs. Athens: Ekdotike Athenon, 1993.
Arnold-Biuchhi, Carmen. Alexander’s Coins and Alexander’s Image. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Art Museums, 2006.
Ashley, James R. The Macedonian Empire. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company, 1998.
Borza, Eugene N. In the Shadow of Olympus: The Emergence of Macedon. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990.
Bosworth, A. B. Alexander and the East: The Tragedy of Triumph. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1996.
——. Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
——. A Historical Commentary on Arrian’s History of Alexander, 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980, 1995.
Bosworth, A. B., and Baynham, E. J., eds. Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
Briant, Pierre. From Cyrus to Alexander: A History of the Persian Empire. Winona Lake, Indiana: Eisenbrauns, 2002.
Brosius, Maria. The Persians. New York: Routledge, 2006.
Carney, Elizabeth. Olympias: Mother of Alexander the Great. New York: Routledge, 2006.
Cartledge, Paul. Alexander the Great. New York: Vintage Books, 2004.
——. The Spartans. New York: Vintage Books, 2004.
——. Thermopylae. New York: Vintage Books, 2007.
Cohen, Ada. The Alexander Mosaic: Stories of Victory and Defeat. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Cross, Frank Moore. “Papyri of the Fourth Century B.C. from Daliyeh” in Freedman, David Noel, and Greenfield, Jonas C., eds., New Directions in Biblical Archaeology, 41–62. New York: Doubleday, 1969.
Cunliffe, Barry. Europe Between the Oceans: 9000 BC–AD 1000. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008.
Curtis, Vesta Sarkhosh. Persian Myths. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1993.
Dahmen, Karsten. The Legend of Alexander the Great on Greek and Roman Coins. New York: Routledge, 2007.
Engels, Donald W. Alexander the Great and the Logistics of the Macedonian Army. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1980.
Fildes, Alan, and Fletcher, Joann. Alexander the Great: Son of the Gods. Los Angeles: The J. Paul Getty Museum, 2002.
Fox, Robin Lane. Alexander the Great. New York: Penguin, 2004.
——. The Search for Alexander the Great. Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1980.
Green, Peter. Alexander of Macedon, 356–323 B.C.: A Historical Biography. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
——. Alexander to Actium. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990.
Hamilton, J. R. Plutarch: Alexander. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969.
Hammond, N.G.L. Alexander the Great: King, Commander and Statesman. Bristol: The Bristol Classical Press, 1989.
——. The Macedonian State: The Origins, Institutions and History. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989.
——. Sources for Alexander the Great. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
——. Three Historians of Alexander the Great. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983.
Hanson, Victor Davis. A War Like No Other. New York: Random House, 2005.
Heckel, Waldemar. The Conquests of Alexander the Great. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
——. Who’s Who in the Age of Alexander the Great. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, 2006.
Heckel, Waldemar, Tritle, Lawrence, and Wheatley, Pat, eds. Alexander’s Empire: Formulation to Decay. Claremont, California: Regina Books, 2007.
Heisserer, A.J. Alexander the Great and the Greeks: The Epigraphic Evidence. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 1980.
Holland, Tom. Persian Fire. New York: Anchor Books, 2007.
Holt, Frank L. Alexander the Great and Bactria. New York: Brill, 1993.
——. Alexander the Great and the Mystery of the Elephant Medallions. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003.
——. Into the Land of Bones: Alexander the Great in Afghanistan. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005.
——. Thundering Zeus: The Making of Hellenistic Bactria. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999.
Hyde, Walter Woodburn. Ancient Greek Mariners. New York: Oxford University Press, 1947.
Ivantchik, Askold, and Licheli, Vakhtang, eds. Achaemenid Culture and Local Traditions in Anatolia, Southern Caucasus and Iran. Leiden: Brill, 2007.
Kagan, Donald. The Peloponnesian War. New York: Penguin, 2004.
Kent, Roland G. Old Persian. New Haven: American Oriental Society, 1953.
Kovacs, Maureen. The Epic of Gilgamesh. Palo Alto, California: Stanford University Press, 1989.
Kuhrt, Amélie. The Persian Empire: A Corpus of Sources from the Achaemenid Period, 2 vols. New York: Routledge, 2007.
Mossé, Claude. Alexander: Destiny and Myth. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2004.
Olmstead, A. T. History of the Persian Empire. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948.
Parker, Grant. The Making of Roman India. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
Pearson, Lionel. The Lost Histories of Alexander the Great. Philadelphia: American Philological Association, 1960.
Pollard, Justin, and Reid, Howard. The Rise and Fall of Alexandria. New York: Penguin, 2006.
Pritchard, James B., ed. Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1955.
Renault, Mary. The Nature of Alexander. New York: Pantheon Books, 1975.
Roisman, Joseph, ed. Alexander the Great: Ancient and Modern Perspectives. Lexington, Massachusetts: D. C. Heath and Company, 1995.
——. Brill’s Companion to Alexander the Great. Leiden: Brill, 2003.
Romm, James S. The Edges of the World in Ancient Thought. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992.
Romm, James S., ed. Alexander the Great: Selections from Arrian, Diodorus, Plutarch, and Quintus Curtius. Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2005.
Ross, David. The Works of Aristotle: Volume XII Selected Fragments. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1952.
Sedlar, Jean. India and the Greek World. Totowa, New Jersey: Rowman and Littlefield, 1980.
Spencer, Diana. The Roman Alexander. Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2002.
Stark, Freya. Alexander’s Path. Woodstock, New York: The Overlook Press, 1988.
Stevenson, Rosemary B. Persica: Greek Writing about Persia in the Fourth Century BC. Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press, 1997.
Stoneman, Richard. Alexander the Great. New York: Routledge, 1997.
——. Alexander the Great: A Life in Legend. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008.
——. The Greek Alexander Romance. New York: Penguin, 1991.
Strassler, Robert B., ed. The Landmark Herodotus. New York: Pantheon Books, 2007.
——. The Landmark Thucydides. New York: Touchstone, 1998.
Talbert, Richard J. A., ed. Barrington Atlas of the Greek and Roman World. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000.
Tarn, W. W. Alexander the Great: Volume II Sources and Studies. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1948.
——. The Greeks i
n Bactria and India. Chicago: Ares Publishers, 1984.
Thomas, Carol G. Alexander the Great in His World. Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing, 2007.
Tod, Marcus N. Greek Historical Inscriptions From the Sixth Century B.C. to the Death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C. Chicago: Ares Publishers, 1985.
Tuplin, Christopher, ed. Persian Responses: Political and Cultural Interaction with(in) the Achaemenid Empire. Swansea: The Classical Press of Wales, 2007.
Wheeler, Mortimer. Flames Over Persepolis. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1968.
Wood, Michael. In the Footsteps of Alexander the Great. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997.
Woodard, Roger D., ed. The Ancient Languages of Asia Minor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
——. The Ancient Languages of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Aksum. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008.
——. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Worthington, Ian, ed. Alexander the Great: Man and God. Harlow, En-gland: Pearson Education Limited, 2004.
——. Alexander the Great: A Reader. New York: Routledge, 2003.
——. Philip II of Macedonia. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008.
ILLUSTRATION
CREDITS
1. Sarissa spear formation: Rob Shone/Getty Images
2. Mount Olympus: Philip Freeman
3. Acropolis of Athens: Alison Dwyer
4. Tomb of Philip: Philip Freeman
5. Ruins of Troy: Philip Freeman
6. Priene inscription: British Museum
7. Halicarnassus: Philip Freeman
8. Tyre: Frank and Helen Schreider/Getty Images
9. Alexander mosaic: Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples/Getty Images
10. Pyramids at Giza: Philip Freeman
11. Palace of Darius: DEA/W. BUSS/Getty Images
12. Tomb of Cyrus the Great: Dmitri Kessel/Getty Images
13. Hindu Kush mountains: Grant Dixon/Getty Images
14. Coin celebrating victory over Indian king Porus: British Museum
15. Coin minted by Lysimachus: British Museum
INDEX
Abdalonymus, 128
Abdera, 50
Abii, 244
Abraham (biblical patriarch), 192
Abreas, 282
Abulites (Susa satrap), 194, 196, 305–6
Abu Simbel, statues at, 144
Acesines River, 276–77, 282, 288
Achilles, 16, 75, 141, 192, 312, 314
Acropolis, 30–31
Ada, Queen of Caria, 35, 93, 94–95, 97, 113, 121
Admetus, 138
Africa, 304, 314
Agamemnon, 1
Agathon, 191
Agis, King of Sparta, 124–25, 160, 165, 181–82
Agrianians, 4, 56–57, 64
Ahriman (Persian god), 71
Ahuramazda (Persian god), 71, 206, 325
Albani, 170
Alexander, King of Epirus, 36, 37, 41, 42
Alexander I, King of Macedonia, 6–8
Alexander II, King of Macedonia, 9
Alexander III (the Great), King of Macedonia:
administrative details and, 265–66
Alexandria, Egypt founded by, 149–50
ancestry of, 5–9
Arab hill tribes and, 134–35
armor of, 75
artistic judgment of, 89
Asia landing of, 74–75
assassination plot against, 99–100
assault on Persian Gates by, 199–203
Athenian visit of, 30–31
in Babylon, 186–92
and Bagoas, 223
in battle with Triballi, 50–52
birth of, 2–3, 17
boyhood of, 18–19
Bucephalas and, 22–24
at Chaeronea, 29–30, 60
change in policy of, 185–86
in chase after Darius, 215–16, 217–18
cities founded by, 122, 149–50, 151, 229, 235, 236–37, 243–44, 288, 292
coinage of, 112–13
command staff change by, 216
daily campaign activities of, 83–84
Danube invasion of, 49–56
Darius’s death and, 220–21
Darius’s peace overtures to, 126–27, 139–40
death of, 317–18, 319–20
decision to return home of, 278–79
destruction of palace in Persepolis by, 212–14
and Diogenes, 48–49
diplomacy of, 244
disbanding of fleet by, 91–92
dispatches sent and received by, 180
divine parentage myths about, 16–17, 32–33, 153–54, 157–58, 160
drinking of, 84, 252, 320
education of, 18–19
Euphrates crossing of, 169
execution of Batis by, 141
in fight to secure throne, 43–45
as first among equals, 227
first child of, 124
fleet of, 89–90, 91–92, 133–34, 145, 150
Gaugamela tactics of, 177–79
at Gaza, 140–41
in Gedrosian desert, 291–94
Gordian knot and, 107–8
Greek mercenaries recruited for, 135
Greek rebellion and, 45–49, 59–67
harem of, 227–28
Hephaestion’s death and, 312–14
Hermolaus’s assassination attempt against, 265
hubris of, 153
in Hyrcania, 223–26
Indian campaign of, 249, 261–89
as inexperienced in naval warfare, 90, 135–36
injuries of, 243, 246, 248, 284–85
insulting letter sent to Darius by, 127
integration of non-Greek soldiers into army of, 56
intellectual interests of, 26
as international ruler, 186
language of, 5
legacy of, 323–30
love of praise of, 84
loyalty bought by, 272
lunar eclipse and, 172
lyre playing of, 21
Maedi campaign of, 28
Malli attack and, 282–86, 303
marble busts of, 27
march to Babylon of, 183–84
marriage to Roxane, 259–60, 261
massacre of Branchidae by, 240–41
massacre of Samaritans by, 164–65
mass wedding held by, 306–7
medical knowledge of, 82, 111
modern opinions on, 328–30
murder of Black Cleitus by, 251–55, 260
murder of Philip’s general by, 9
Parmenion’s support reduced by, 87, 97, 217
Persian boys trained by, 306–7
Persian brides of, 307
Persian campaign of see Persian Campaign of Alexander
Persian government structure retained by, 82–83, 86
Persian mountain expedition of, 211–12
personality of, 84
Philip’s assassination and, 37–38, 41–42
Philip’s repudiation of, 33–34
Philotas’s plot against, 230–34
physical description of, 27
Pixodarus intrigue of, 35–36, 93
plans for future conquest by, 303–5
plots against, 111–12
portrait commissioned by, 88–89
promise to repeal taxes by, 44
propaganda of, 76–77
proskynesis issue of, 262–65
as regent of Macedonia, 28
relationships with women of, 27
religion and, 83, 152
religious interests of, 190, 286–87
Satibarzanes revolt and, 228–29
scorched-earth policy of, 109
Scythian raid of, 246–47
self-control valued by, 27
sickness of, 110–12
siege of Pellium by, 57–59
and Siwa oracle, 144, 1
51–58
and Sogdian rebellion, 245–48
and Sogdian Rock, 258–59
soldiers’ debts paid by, 307
speeches to troops by, 221–23, 278–79, 309–10
succession fights after death of, 320–23
in Susa, 194–96
tactics of, 14
Theban revolt and, 61–67
and theft of Bucephalas, 225–26
on throne of Darius, 209
trappings of foreign king adopted by, 226–28
treatment of Darius’s family by, 120–22
treatment of Greek mercenaries by, 82–83, 104
Troy visited by, 74–76
tutors of, 6, 18–19, 24–26
veterans decommissioned by, 239, 308–10
visit of Celts to, 55–56
visit to Delphi by, 49
winter campaigning by, 98–99
Alexander IV, 321–22
Alexander of Lyncestis, 43, 99–100, 111
Alexander Romance, The, 328
Alexander’s Camp (Egypt), 155
Alexander’s Haven, 296
Alexandria (Cilicia), 122
Alexandria (Egypt), 149–50, 151, 321, 326–27
Alexandria (India), 288
Alexandria (Kandahar), 235, 236, 289
Alexandria Eschate, 243, 246
Alexandria-in-the-Caucusus, 236–37, 266
Alexandria-of-the-Arians, 229
Alexandropolis, 28
Alinda, 93
altitude sickness, 236
Amazons, 224–25
Ammonii, 156
Amphictyonic Council, 22, 46
Amphilochus, 114
Amphipolis, 19–20
Amphoterus, 165
Amun (god), 151
Amyntas, King of Macedonia, 7
Amyntas III, King of Macedonia, 8–9, 25
Amyntas (Macedonian refugee), 114–15
Amyntas (Philip’s general), 33, 191
Amyntas (soldier), 60
Anahita (Persian god), 71
Anaxarchus, 255
Anaximenes, 76
Anaxippus, 226, 228
Anchiale, 113
Ancyra, 108
Andromachus, 164, 165
Antibelus, 217
Antigone, 231
Antigonus, 104, 322
Antioch, 114
Antiochus IV Epiphanes, 326
Antipater, 26, 43–44, 67, 72, 99, 160, 165, 181, 191, 310–11, 319, 321, 322
Aornus, 267–68
Apelles, 88–89
Aphrodite (goddess), 189
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