45. Roger D. Launius, “Eisenhower and Space: Politics and Ideology in the Construction of the U.S. Civil Space Program,” in Forging the Shield, ed. Showalter, 151–182.
46. Fred I. Greenstein, The Hidden-Hand Presidency: Eisenhower as Leader (New York: Basic Books, 1982) develops this tactic as a central theme in Ike’s role as president.
47. As late as May 19, the president was lying about the incident, claiming, for instance, that the U-2 was a “civilian reconnaissance plane.” DDE to Alberto Lleras Comargo, May 19, 1960, Papers, 20:1953–1954. In his customary manner, Ike tried to convert a negative—the collapse of the Paris meetings—into a positive result: “One good result of the failure of the conference was to bring the allies closer together.” DDE to Macmillan, May 24, 1960, Papers, 20:1955–1956.
Twelve. The Wise Man
1. My thanks to Walter Isaacson and Evan Thomas for publishing their great book The Wise Men: Six Friends and the World They Made (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1986), a collective biography of six men who played crucial roles in defining America’s position in the world during the immediate postwar years: Averell Harriman, Dean Acheson, George Kennan, Robert Lovett, John McCloy, and Charles Bohlen. George Marshall and Eisenhower came along too late to make that show, but clearly they were crucial to the reshaping of the containment policy and America’s international role in the 1940s and 1950s.
2. On professionalism in America, see, for instance, the following sources: Paul J. Miranti, Accountancy Comes of Age: The Development of an American Profession, 1886–1940 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1990); Milton Friedman and Simon Smith Kuznets, Income from Independent Professional Practice (New York: National Bureau of Economic Research, 1954); Jane Eliot Sewell, Medicine in Maryland: The Practice and Profession, 1799–1999 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999); Andrew Delano Abbott, The System of Professions: An Essay on the Division of Labor (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1988). Louis Galambos, The Creative Society—and the Price Americans Paid for It (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2012).
3. Here I am using the traditional distinction between dogma, which is the part of religious doctrine that does not change because it is a product of revelation, and doctrine, which is the body of rules and understandings in a religion. These rules and understandings are subject to change from time to time.
4. Had Eisenhower reflected on General Conner’s long campaign on his behalf, he might have seen considerable evidence of cunning and an occasional touch of duplicity. He had, however, elevated Conner to such an exalted position that he was unlikely to associate his idol with Machiavellian skills. Judging by Ike’s memoir, At Ease: Stories I Tell to Friends (New York: Doubleday, 1967), he did not see himself exercising those skills in his own military and political careers.
Index
Abilene, Kansas, 11–12
Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), 182, 265n39
African Americans, and Eisenhower’s support for equality of opportunity, 186–187
African American soldiers, during World War II, 143, 186
Afrika Korps, 99, 101
Alexander, Frank, 147
Alexander, Harold R. L. G., 100; in the North African campaign, 100, 103–104; in the Sicily campaign, 105, 106
Allen, George, 129
Allied forces, importance of unity among, 92, 93, 107, 116–118, 128, 245n107, 246–247n11. See also Eisenhower, Dwight D.; Roosevelt, Franklin D.; World War II
American Assembly, 159
American Battle Monuments Commission, 56
American Expeditionary Force (World War I), 38, 46, 56, 58; MacArthur’s service with, 64–65. See also Pershing, John J. “Black Jack”
Anderson, Kenneth, 100, 101, 103, 105
Anderson, Lars, 228n10
Arcadia conference, 92–93
Ardennes, the, German offensive in, 141–142
Army, US. See United States Army
Arnim, Juergen von, 243n76
Arnold, Henry “Hap,” 117
AT&T, 181–182
Baruch, Bernard, 172
Bastogne, Belgium, Allied offensive at, 141–142
Bell System, 181
Bender, Mark C., 230n14
Benson, Ezra Taft, 170
Berlin, and American foreign policy, 203–204
Bonus Army, MacArthur’s handling of, 66–67
Bradley, Omar, 86, 95, 107, 123, 215, 252n87; in the final campaign, 145; as leader in attack on German-held France, 126, 128–129, 134–135, 136, 137–138, 142; and the North African campaign, 104; photograph of, 132; and the Sicily campaign, 105–106
Bricker, John W., 267n1
Bring Back Daddy organization, 154
Bristow, Joseph L., 24
British Empire, Eisenhower’s views on, 198
Brooke, Alan Francis, 94, 100, 113, 247n25
Burns, Arthur F., 176
Butcher, Harry, 248n32, 251n70
Butler, Nicholas Murray, 158
Camp Colt, 37, 38–39, 52
Camp Gaillard, Panama, 49
Camp Meade, Maryland: Eisenhower at, 1, 5, 6, 37, 41, 53; Patton at, 41–42
Carr, Irving J., 59
Casablanca, Patton’s attack at, 97
Central Intelligence Agency, 194
Chaumont clique, 90, 238n19, 239n24
Chiang Kai-shek, 200–201
China, American policy toward, 200–201
Churchill, Winston, 247n25, 251n67; as advocate of attack in North Africa, 92–93; and the British Empire, 198; and Eisenhower, 94, 95, 117, 147, 164; and strategy discussions during World War II, 93, 95, 100, 103, 113, 122
Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), 69
Civil Rights Act of 1957, 186–187
Clark, Mark Wayne, 80–81, 86, 88; during World War II, 94, 96, 97
Clausewitz, Carl von, 51, 82, 121
Clay, Lucius, 166
Cold War, xi; Eisenhower’s concerns regarding, 160; Eisenhower’s strategy relating to, 155–156, 206–207, 216. See also Soviet Union
Command and General Staff School, 54; Eisenhower at, 55–56
communism, spread of, 198–199, 201–204; in China, 200–201; in eastern Europe, 201–203. See also revolutionary movements; Soviet Union
Conner, Fox, 44, 65, 67, 86; as advocate of tank warfare, 41, 45–46; as Army Chief of Operations, 47; as mentor to Eisenhower, 45, 47–57, 69, 94, 213–214, 271n4; and Patton, 45–46; and Pershing, 47, 49; photograph of, 44
Conservation of Human Resources Project, 159
Council of Economic Advisors, 176
Craig, Malin, 79
Cultural Revolution (China), 201
Czechoslovakia, Soviet occupation of, 153
Darlan, François, 97–99; as military governor in North Africa, 98
Davis, Bob, 22
Davis, T. J., 71, 73
D-Day invasion (Operation Overlord), 248n34; air support required for, 116–118; Allied intelligence as factor in, 122–123; consequences of failure of, 120–122; debates over strategy for, 115–118; Eisenhower as commander during, 114–130, 215; weather as concern for, 119–120
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), 182, 265n39
Defense Reorganization Act (1920), 17
de Gaulle, Charles, 98, 126–127, 253n13
Denison, Texas, Eisenhower’s youth in, 14
D’Este, Carlo, 138, 231n30
Devers, Jacob L., 136
Dien Bien Phu, 199
Dodge, Joseph M., 176
Dulles, John Foster, 170, 193–194, 197, 201
economy, American, under Eisenhower: achievements of, 187–188; advisors for, 172–173, 174–176, 181, 261n17; and agriculture subsidy program, 180; balanced budgets achieved by, 178, 179, 187, 265n45; challenges relating to, 171–173; and the Cold War, 188; deficit spending, 172; and economic security, 184–185; equality of opportunity, 177–178, 186–187, 266n51; foreign trade policy, 184; growth of, 182–183; ideas gleaned from Eisenhower’s pers
onal experience, 173–174; income taxes, 178; and the Middle East, 199–200; and national highway system proposal, 180, 185, 262n26; programs put forth in his first State of the Union message, 176–177; recessions, 183, 187; social security, 185; and technological innovation, 171, 177, 181–182, 183, 264n35, 264–265n39, 265n40; trade policy, 171; unemployment, 183–184
Egypt, and the Suez crisis, 199–200
Eighth Army (British forces): in the North African campaign, 100, 103; in the Sicily campaign, 105
Eisenhower, Abraham (brother), 14
Eisenhower, Arthur (brother), 21–22, 39
Eisenhower, David (father): disappointments experienced by, 12–16; financial difficulties experienced by, 17, 174; harsh punishment meted out by, 15; at the Home Gas Company, 227n39; marriage of, 13, 18; menial jobs held by, 14–15, 225n5
Eisenhower, Doud Dwight “Ikky” (son): birth of, 36–37, 224n13; illness and death of, 40
Eisenhower, Dwight D.: as athlete, 27, 29–30; and the French, 99, 152, 163; health problems of, 60, 76, 205, 211, 232n35; marital problems of, 114; marriage of, 34, 224n13; as poker player, 22–23; photographs of, 2, 10, 26, 62, 84, 104, 108, 132, 150, 170, 190, 210; in retirement, 211–212; as statesman, 216
—authority as issue for: in Eisenhower’s early years, 16, 18, 23, 24; in his military career, 3–8, 33, 35, 57–58, 76–77; at West Point, 28, 225n15, 228n4
—Cold War: economic strength as critical during, 188; Eisenhower’s concerns regarding, 160; Eisenhower’s strategy relating to, 155–156, 206–207, 216
—early years of, 14, 16–23, 212, 230n12; academic success of, 20–21; in competition with brother Ed, 16–18, 226n22
—leadership demonstrated by: in his military career, 33, 34–35, 38–39, 48, 55–56, 59–60, 81–82, 213–216; as president, xiii, 171–173, 187–188, 191–195, 197, 205–208, 216–218, 263–264n33; during World War II, 93–96, 107, 114–130, 133–148, 169, 256n76
—Machiavellian moments as experienced by, ix; with Bradley and Montgomery, 145–146, 215–216; and his political ambitions, 161; with MacArthur in the Philippines, 77–80, 215; during the North African campaign, 100–101
—military career, 31–35; as advocate of tank warfare, 4–5, 41–42, 224n12; and the American Battle Monuments Commission, 56; at Camp Colt, 37, 38–39, 52; at Camp Meade, 5, 6, 37, 41; at the Command and General Staff School, 54, 55–56, 230n14; commanding officers’ assessments of, 33, 34–35, 36, 38–39, 52–53, 55–56, 57–58, 59–61, 81, 87, 95, 225n14, 228n15, 231n33, 231–232n34, 238n21; as described in diary entries, 65–66, 74–77, 79; and desire for a command post, 86–89; as detail person, 87–88; Distinguished Service Medal awarded to, 52, 229n27; as football coach, 35, 40, 48, 53, 56; at Fort Sam Houston, 32–33; Fox Conner as mentor to, 45, 47–57, 69, 94, 213–214, 271n4; in France, 57–58; and General MacArthur, 60–61, 62, 63, 65–82, 214–215, 234n27, 237n10; and General Patton, 37, 40, 41–42, 86, 106–107, 134–136; and General Pershing, 57–58; as a leader, 31, 32–33, 34–35, 38–39, 48, 55–56, 59–60, 81–82, 88–89, 93–96, 213–216; as media figure, 89; in Panama, 48–49; in the Philippines, 69–82, 236n1; promotions received by, 6, 37, 84, 87, 88, 93, 240n46; as student of military history, 51–52; as Supreme Commander, 114–130, 134–148; with the tank corps, 37, 38–39; and tensions with Marshall, 112–114; and the Third Army, 87–89; threatened with court-martial, 6, 47; on unity of command and purpose, 85–86, 88, 92, 93, 116–118, 128, 239n30, 245n107, 246–247n11; in the War Department, 69, 234n26; during World War I, 35–38. See also D-Day invasion; World War II
—postwar challenges: as army’s Chief of Staff, 153, 154–158, 216; as candidate for president, 166–169; as chairman of the Joint Chiefs, 159–161, 216; and concerns about Soviet expansion, 153, 154–156; interest-group politics, 156, 158, 160; as military governor of the US Occupied Zone (Germany), 151–152; political ambitions of, 161, 164–166; as president of Columbia University, 158–160, 216; as public speaker, 167–168; and relations with the Soviet Union, 152–153; as Supreme Allied Commander, Europe, for NATO, 162–164, 216
—as president, 169, 170, 216–218, 263–264n33; economic challenges faced by, 171–173; equality of opportunity supported by, 186–187, 218; farewell address of, 207–208; and McCarthy, 179, 202; on the military industrial complex, 207–208; State of the Union message (1953), 176–177. See also economy, American, under Eisenhower; national security, under Eisenhower
—at West Point, 28–31, 212, 225n15; as athlete, 29–30, 228n10; as football coach, 7, 30–31
Eisenhower, Earl (brother), 24, 39
Eisenhower, Edgar (brother), 16–18, 24, 28, 39, 174, 185, 226n22, 266nn46–47
Eisenhower, Ida Stover (mother), 14, 15; education as important to, 19–20; marriage of, 13, 18; religion as important to, 18–19
Eisenhower, John (son), 49, 78
Eisenhower, Mamie Doud (wife), 34, 40, 49, 78, 162, 211, 230n11; marital problems experienced by, 114; photographs of, 26, 210
Eisenhower, Milton (brother), 24, 39, 68, 167
Eisenhower, Roy (brother), 227n34
England. See Great Britain
Fairchild Semiconductor, 182, 183
Farnsworth, Charles S., 4–5
fascism, Eisenhower as crusader against, 86
Faubus, Orval, 187
Federal Reserve Board, 179, 184
15th Infantry Regiment, 80, 86
57th Infantry Regiment, 36
First Army, 126, 145
1stInfantry Division, 123
foreign policy. See national security, under Eisenhower
Forrestal, James, 159–160
Fort Benning, Georgia, 53, 56
Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, 37, 54
Fort Lewis, Washington, 80, 86
Fort Oglethorpe, Georgia, 37
Fort Sam Houston, Texas, 32
4th Armored Division, 142
Francis, Clarence, 165
Franco, Francisco, 267n2
Fredendall, Lloyd R., 97, 100, 101, 102, 243n78, 243n83, 244n85
Gaulle, Charles de. See de Gaulle, Charles
German army, 85, 86, 88, 115–116, 118, 139, 255n61; in the Ardennes, 141–142; and debates over strategy among the high command, 124–126; impact of the Soviet offensive on, 110, 121, 139–140, 141, 143–147; Soviet Union invaded by, 92, 109–110; surrender of, 147. See also D-Day invasion; Italian campaign; North African campaign; Sicily campaign; Vichy forces; World War II
Gerow, Leonard T., 55, 86, 90, 123, 238n17, 239n29
Giraud, Henri Honoré, 97, 98
Goodpaster, Andrew J., 194, 265n39
Grass, Günter, 110, 245n3
Graves, Ernest, 29
Great Britain, and tensions with the US during World War II, 93–96, 102–103, 104–105
Great Depression, xii
Great War, the. See World War I
Gruenther, Alfred Maximilian, 95, 162–163, 241n47
Guderian, Heinz, 141
Haislip, Wade, 90, 237n10
Harding, Warren, 4
Hauge, Gabriel, 176, 262n26
Hazlett, Edward E. “Swede,” 22, 23, 227n35
Helmick, Charles G., 6
Himmler, Heinrich, 141
Hitler, Adolf, 88; Eisenhower on, 86, 236–237n2; strategic blunders made by, 125–126, 140–141, 144
Hodges, Courtney, 137–138
Hoffman, Paul, 165, 198
Hoover, Herbert, 66
Hoover, J. Edgar, 155
Humphrey, George M., 176
Hungarian revolt, 202–203
Hurd, Bruce, 226n22
Hurley, Patrick J., 65
Hutter, Howard, 71
International Monetary Fund, 172
interstate highway system, 180, 185, 262n26
Israel, and the Suez crisis, 199–200
Italian campaign, 110–114; German troops’ involvement in, 111, 246n9
Jacoby, Neil, 261n17
James, D. Clayton, 233n14
Janowitz, Morris, 229n37<
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Japan: as America’s ally, 195; and bombing of Pearl Harbor, 90; postwar economic development in, 184; as threat to American interests in the Pacific, 71, 85
Johnson, Lyndon, 186, 187
Joint Chiefs of Staff, Eisenhower as chairman of, 159–161
Kasserine Pass, American defeat at, 101–103
Kennedy, John F., 179, 187
Kesselring, Albert, 111
Khrushchev, Nikita, 188, 190, 203–204, 206
Killian, James R., Jr., 182
Kingseed, Cole C., 269n32
Konev, Ivan, 144
Korda, Michael, 225n5, 228n4
Korea, war in, 172, 195. See also North Korea; South Korea
Krueger, Walter, Eisenhower as chief of staff to, 87, 88–89
Landon, Alf, 73
Lane University, 13, 20
Lasby, Clarence G., 232n35
League of Nations, 4
Lécuyer, Christophe, 264n35
Lee, John, 95
Leigh-Mallory, Trafford, 120, 122
Lisio, Donald J., 233n13
Little Rock, Arkansas, court-ordered integration of school in, 187
MacArthur, Arthur, II, 63–64
MacArthur, Douglas: and the Bonus Army, 66–67, 233nn13–14; as Chief of Staff of the US Army, 65, 66–69; in contrast to Eisenhower, 63–64; and Eisenhower as assistant to, 60–61, 62, 65–81, 214–215; Eisenhower’s characterizations of, 66; and the Korean war, 195, 196; in the Philippines, 69–82, 232n9; photograph of, 62; temperamental nature of, 70–71, 73; during World War I, 64–65
MacDonald, Charles B., 255n56
Machiavellian moments, Eisenhower’s experiences of, ix; with Bradley and Montgomery, 145–146, 215–216; and Fox Conner as mentor, 214; and his political ambitions, 161; with MacArthur in the Philippines, 77–80, 215; during the North African campaign, 100–101
Mao Zedong, 200–201
March, Peyton C., 64
Market Garden (airborne operation), 138–139
Marshall, George C., 47, 58, 81, 87, 202, 238nn22–23; early military career of, 91–92; and Eisenhower, 91–95, 112–114, 133, 168–169; photograph of, 104; and preparations for World War II, 88, 89, 90–95; and revamping of the US Army, 89–91; during World War I, 91; during World War II, 101, 104, 113, 115, 129, 130, 136–137, 145
Marshall Plan, 172
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