The Eighth Army was now reduced to two Corps, composed of four divisions and two brigades, so General Walker ordered his Army to abandon North Korea on 3 December, much to the surprise of the Chinese commanders. The following 120 mile withdrawal to the 38th Parallel is often referred to as the longest retreat in US military history. Walker was unaware that the Chinese 13th Army Group was half-starved and incapable of further offensive operations. The great ‘Bug Out’ had begun.
Across the other side of the peninsula, General Almond's X Corps had begun moving northwards on 27 November, with the two divisions of the ROK I Corps following the coastal roads, the US 7th Infantry Division in the centre and the 1st Marine Division on the left, all aiming for different points on the Yalu River. The Marines were to pass along both sides of the Chosin Reservoir, tie in with the right flank of Eighth Army and then press on a further sixty miles to the Yalu. The commander of the 1st Marine Division, Major General Oliver P. Smith, was wary of advancing too fast, despite the insistence of the Corps commander. The terrain in that part of Korea consisted of narrow roads, often cut by gullies and valleys with imposing ridgelines and mountains surrounding them. Smith wanted his men to advance cautiously, in contact with each other and maintaining unit integrity. He made the correct decision.
General Almond then ordered the 31st Regimental Combat Team of the 7th Division to relieve the 5th Marine Regiment on the east side of the Chosin Reservoir, so the Marines could concentrate their forces in the west. However, the 31st RCT as well as the rest of the 7th Division were widely scattered and the units arrived at the east of the reservoir in bits and pieces. They eventually formed themselves into Task Force Faith and Task Force McLean, named after their commanders.
Late on 27 November, the Chinese Offensive began on the eastern front with the 150,000 strong Ninth Army Group, comprising the 20th, 26th and 27th Armies advancing towards the 1st Marine Division and the US 7th Infantry Division. The CPVF 79th and 89th Divisions fell on the 5th and 7th Marine Regiments on the west side of the reservoir and the 80th Division surrounded Task Force McLean on the east side. During heavy fighting Colonel McLean was captured and Colonel Faith took over command. The 2,500 men of Task Force Faith tried to break through to the Marines in the south, taking their 600 wounded men with them. The Chinese were too strong for them though and only half would eventually make it through. The wounded Colonel Faith and all of the wounded were left behind to their fate.
To the west of the reservoir, the 5th and 7th Marines began a fighting withdrawal back to Hagaru-ri at the south end of the reservoir and then a further fifty miles south-east to Hungnam, a port on the east coast from where they would be withdrawn by sea. The epic retreat would see the 1st Marine Division bring their dead and wounded with them as they fought their way slowly to safety. During the day they could rely on close air support from their own aircraft, but during the night they had to contend with the bitter cold and the Chinese creeping closer and closer to their columns. Finally, 11,000 Marines and 1,000 Infantry soldiers made it to Hungnam where they were taken off by the Navy. They were followed by the ROK I Corps, the battered US 7th Infantry Division and the newly arrived US 3rd Infantry Division: over 105,000 troops, 18,000 vehicles and 350,000 tons of bulk cargo, as well as 98,000 refugees. On 24 December the port was evacuated and all remaining stores in the warehouses ashore destroyed in a massive series of explosions. The ships were heading for Pusan in the South, where the troops would be refitted and redeployed to the front to help Eighth Army hold the line.
Although the Chinese Ninth Army Group scored the CPVF's only major victory in three years of war when it wiped out the entire 32nd Regiment of the 7th Division, it suffered terribly in the Korean winter. More than 30,000 officers and men, some 22 per cent of the entire Army Group, were disabled by severe frostbite and over a thousand died.
In the meantime Eighth Army had pulled back from the Chongchon River and was concentrating near P'yongyang. General Walker realized that his forces were in no condition to hold a defensive line so far north and approved a further withdrawal of almost a hundred miles to the Imjin River, north of Seoul. By the end of December the UN line was established with the US I and IX Corps and the ROK III, II and I Corps running from the west coast to east. The Chinese did not pursue them; they needed to resupply and refit, as did the UN forces now licking their wounds and digging new defensive positions along the Imjin River. The Second Campaign represented the peak of CPVF performance in the Korean War. From now on things would get harder. They were hampered by their weak firepower compared to the UN forces and they would have to follow them southwards to continue the battle, where the enemy's superior weapons and air power could be brought to bear on them. There were logistical constraints as well; an overstretched supply line, bad roads, a shortage of trucks and marauding UN aircraft combined to cause food shortages where some CPVF units only had food for one week.
General Walker's part in the war came to an end on the morning of 23 December, while he was out on an inspection tour in his jeep. Ten miles north of Seoul, a Korean truck driver pulled onto the wrong side of the road and collided head on with his jeep, killing the General. He would be replaced by Lieutenant General Matthew B. Ridgway, a famed airborne commander from the Second World War, whose first task would be to turn morale around and improve the fighting ability of the Eighth Army.
A machine gun crew from the US 2nd Infantry Division north of the Chongchon River on 20 November 1950.
British Royal Marines from 41 Commando, put ashore by a US naval vessel deep in the heart of North Korea, plant demolition charges along an enemy rail track. They were attached to the 1st Marine Division and fought with them at the Chosin Reservoir.
Marine Corsairs drop napalm on North Korean positions on the drive towards the Chosin reservoir.
Chinese General Peng Dehuai left, confers with North Korean leader Kim II Sung.
14 October 1950, the 334th Regiment, 119th Division, 15th Chinese Field Army cross the frozen Yalu River into North Korea. The first units took up positions near the power generating stations that supplied electricity to most of Manchuria.
Chinese troops hiding in a bunker in a hillside. They managed to keep the presence of thirty-eight Divisions totalling 300,000 men, hidden from UN eyes until they launched their First Phase Offensive on 25 October 1950.
Chinese communist infantry moving to an attack through the snow. Their rubber-soled canvas shoes provided no protection against the cold and frostbite caused more casualties than UN firepower in the winter of 1950.
The Peoples Liberation Army's communications were inferior in comparison to the UN forces. Radios were only issued down to regiments, who then used field telephones if available, to contact their battalions. Battalions then used bugles, whistles and runners to talk to each other and their subordinate companies.
The Chinese 40th Corps attack American positions near the Chosin Reservoir. A Chinese Corps was the equivalent to an American division.
Captain Warren J. Rosengren interrogates a captured Chinese soldier near Kunang in North Korea. South Korean military policemen stand guard while an interpreter translates.
Early reports of dead Chinese soldiers were initially ignored. It was not until live prisoners were interrogated that the awful truth dawned – China had joined the conflict.
Troopers from the 8th Cavalry Regiment advancing cautiously into North Korea. The unit would be decimated near Unsan in October when it was overrun by human waves of Chinese infantry.
Corporal Sam Ayala, L Company, 7th Regimental Combat Team, US 3rd Infantry Division nurses his wounds as his comrades take a break from the fighting.
Chinese troops prepare to assault the US 31st Regimental Combat Team. Known as Task Force Faith after its commander, the unit was destroyed between 27 November and 2 December 1950 whilst guarding the right flank of the 1st Marine Division as it withdrew from the Chosin Reservoir.
Chinese troops pour from their hiding places to encircle the
1st Marine Division as it reached the Chosin Reservoir. The US 7th Infantry Division suffered heavy casualties at the northern end of the reservoir.
Chinese troops take a break to drink tea.
Chinese reinforcements advancing into North Korea. The Chinese enjoyed a virtually unlimited supply of manpower. Note the foliage being carried by the soldiers; the concealment skills of the Chinese were legendary.
Refugees fleeing P'yongyang cross the Taedong River on 4 December 1950 on the ruins of this road bridge.
An anti-tank mine crew search the ground after an M4A3E8 76W(HVSS) Sherman tank from the 32nd Regimental Combat Team, US 7th Infantry Division was disabled when it hit a mine on the road.
A North Korean flag captured in the Chosin Reservoir area.
Chinese troops firing mortar rounds at a UN hilltop position while the infantry advances.
This sixteen-foot hole was blown by Chinese soldiers in the single road from the Chosin Reservoir to the sea. Bridge sections were dropped by C-119s to span the gap and allow the retreat to continue.
Chinese prisoners taken by ‘C’ Company, 7th Marines south of Koto-ri on 9 December 1950 during the retreat from the Chosin Reservoir.
Marines in the retreat from the Chosin Reservoir halt while leading elements clear a Chinese roadblock.
These Marines can still raise a smile for the camera despite the atrocious weather conditions. A light 60mm mortar with its base plate lies on the ground in the snow.
Casualties being loaded onto a USAF C-47 at the tiny Hagaru-ri airstrip during the retreat from the Chosin Reservoir. A total of 4,312 casualties were evacuated in five days.
Frozen bodies of American Marines, British Commandos and South Korean soldiers are gathered for a group burial at Koto-ri.
Men of the 5th Marine Regiment receive medals at Hungnam prior to their withdrawal by sea.
No photographs have been found of the US 2nd Infantry Division running the gauntlet at Kunu-ri in November 1950 but there would have been similar scenes to this, with men sheltering in ditches and behind vehicles as the Chinese poured fire down on them from the hills above.
A Chinese photograph showing American officers and soldiers who were captured in the destruction of the US 2nd Infantry Division near Kunu-ri. The Division suffered almost 5,000 casualties, a third of its strength and almost all of its artillery and engineer equipment.
At the port of Hungnam the remaining fuel, ammunitions and supplies are destroyed on 24 December 1950 as USS Begor stands off in the harbour.
Chapter Three
The Great Bug Out
31 December 1950 – 8 July 1951
The Second Chinese offensive had eventually petered out as they ran short of supplies. The units on the western front had fewer than 300 trucks to carry supplies for 300,000 troops and the Ninth Army Group was disabled due to frostbite. General Peng requested a pause of a few months until the spring and wanted to confine his forthcoming campaign to areas north of the 38th Parallel. The UN had proposed a cease-fire to the Chinese on 1 December, which Mao interpreted as a weakness that China should exploit. Mao overruled Peng and ordered him to plan a third campaign across the 38th Parallel against UN forces entrenched across the entire peninsula. It would stretch the fragile Chinese supply lines to breaking point and allow Eighth Army to inflict severe losses on them in the spring of 1951.
The Chinese soldiers subsisted on Shaoping, a hard, unleavened bread. Each man carried his own measure of a concoction of sorghum, millet, lima beans and wheat flour from which he prepared the bread, eating while on the move. The Chinese soldiers had little opportunity to enjoy hot food because the UN air superiority and continual air reconnaissance prevented them from building fires. This unvaried diet of cold food caused large numbers of Chinese soldiers to suffer diseases of the digestive tract.
The South Korean soldiers lived off a basic dish of steamed rice, often mixed with barley and supplemented with salted fish and soybean and red pepper paste. They ate very little meat, but made soup from boiled vegetables or bean sprouts. With the virtual absence of communist aircraft over the battlefield, the ROK troops had no trouble building fires to cook their meals.
The American soldiers consumed three grades of rations: A, B and C. The A rations were top quality western food including steak; B rations were simpler foods like sausage, that could be heated and eaten by an individual or prepared for a unit. The famous C rations were field rations, canned and easily carried in the field.
As of January 1951 the Eighth Army consisted of 178,000 American soldiers and Marines, 224,000 ROK Army troops and contingents from the United Kingdom, Australia, Canada, Turkey and many other countries. They were organized into five corps, from west to east: I Corps, IX Corps and X Corps and the ROK III and I Corps. Generally, the ROK units held the more easily defended, rugged terrain in the east, while the US forces were positioned on the lower, flatter areas in the west, where their greater firepower and mobility were more decisive.
Opposing the UN forces were some 290,000 Chinese and North Korean soldiers. The Chinese were organized into seven Corps-sized armies and twenty-two divisions totalling 204,000 troops, primarily holding the western and central portions of the front. Around 50,000 North Korean soldiers in three Corps and fourteen under-strength divisions, held the eastern sector. In addition, a further 30,000 North Korean guerillas were still behind the UN lines in the mountainous areas of eastern South Korea.
The Chinese method of attacking eventually became clear to the UN Command. They would aim for the juncture of two UN forces, where it was difficult for one to support the other by fire, or for a point where the defences were not very deep. Before the communist troops moved on foot to the attack point, they were issued with five to seven days' combat rations and were warned not to eat them until needed. Basic loads of ammunition were also issued and the troops were told to use captured UN material whenever possible. At this assembly area the battalion commanders were given their zones of attack. Their men would advance in columns of battalions to the attack point at about 2,500 yards per hour. About 2,000 metres from the enemy front lines the communist troops would be given a short rest and allowed to eat one combat ration. At this point, company commanders were given their orders and took over from the battalion commanders. The method of attack and the time element would be controlled by the divisional commander. No flexibility was permitted to the battalion and company commanders. When the order to attack was given, the company and platoon commanders would give their orders by whistle or bugle and the infantry would close with the enemy as quickly as possible to avoid the defensive artillery fire and overwhelm them with superior numbers.
On New Years Eve 1950 the CPVF launched its Third Campaign and in a matter of eight days had crossed the 38th Parallel, recaptured Seoul without a fight and pushed the UN forces back to the 37th Parallel. The UN forces destroyed or abandoned huge supply dumps as they retreated, to be pillaged by passing friendly troops or the advancing Chinese. American sleeping bags were favoured by the Chinese, who suffered more casualties as a result of the extreme weather than American guns.
On the morning of 3 January 1951, it was the turn of the British 29th Independent Infantry Brigade to face the Chinese as they swarmed southwards. They were near Koyang, twelve miles north-west of Seoul. The snow lay thick on the ground and a bitter wind howled in from Manchuria as they took up their positions, to the right of the US 35th Infantry Regiment. The Americans were the first to engage the Chinese as they advanced blowing whistles and bugles, then they fell upon the Irishmen of the 1st Royal Ulster Rifles. Two platoons were overrun and acting battalion commander Major Tony Blake called in artillery and air support before a counter-attack was launched and hand-to-hand fighting with bayonets, hand grenades, sten guns, boots and fists spread across the hill. As dawn approached the Chinese withdrew, leaving 300 dead behind them. By the time the order to withdraw reached the Ulstermen, they would be the last UN unit to withdraw; the American infantry had already
pulled out and the hills were swarming with Chinese.
Their line of retreat would lead them down a valley overlooked by the Chinese. The retreat began on a frozen, moonless night and the columns of soldiers, their vehicles in the centre, moved stealthily down the steel-hard track. An armoured force of a dozen Cromwell tanks from Cooper Force was following them, their tracks squealing and slipping on the ice. Suddenly, just as the leading company met up with the waiting American trucks at the valley mouth, an American plane appeared overhead and dropped flares into the valley. The column was bathed in an eerie white light as the Irishmen swore under their breaths. The enemy could not fail to spot them and opened up with their mortars and machine guns. Then hundreds of Chinese poured down the hills to seize a village on the southern track, blocking the route.
Korea Page 5