How to Use the Partitive Construction
“Some” or “any” are represented in French by the preposition de plus the form of the definite article which agrees in gender and number with the noun which follows. Therefore, before a masculine singular noun the proper expression would be du; before a feminine singular noun, de la; before a masculine or feminine singular noun which begins with a vowel or silent h, de l’; before a masculine or feminine plural noun, des.
Voulez-vous du café?
Do you want (some, any) coffee?
Nous avons des bananes et des pommes.
We have (some) bananas and (some) apples.
There are several cases where de alone (without the article) is required. The most important of these to remember is negative sentences.
POSITIVE NEGATIVE
Nous avons du fromage.
Nous n‘avons pas de fromage.
We have (some) cheese.
We don’t have any cheese.
Il y a des poires.
Il n’y a pas de poires.
There are (some) pears.
There aren’t any pears.
Elle a des amis ici.
Elle n‘a pas d’amis ici.
She has (some) friends here.
She hasn’t any friends here.
Demonstrative Adjectives and Pronouns
Demonstrative Adjectives
In French “this” and “that” are expressed by the following words: ce, cet, and cette. “These” and “those” are expressed by the word ces.
Study the following examples:
ce crayon
cet hotel
this (or that) pencil
this (or that) hotel
cette école
ces crayons
this (or that) school
these (or those) pencils
ces hôtels
ces écoles
these (or those) hotels
these (or those) schools
Observations on the demonstrative adjectives:
Ce is the normal word for “this” and “that” to be used before masculine singular nouns.
Cet is used before masculine nouns which begin with a vowel or a silent h.
Cette is used before all feminine singular nouns.
Ces is used before all plural nouns.
Emphatic Forms of the Demonstrative Adjectives
If you wish to emphasize or make a contrast between this or that, these or those, add -ci (for this and these) or -là (for that and those) to the end of the noun.
ce crayon-ci
ce crayon-là
this pencil
that pencil
ces écoles-ci
ces écoles-là
these schools
those schools
Demonstrative Pronouns
The demonstrative pronoun celui (the one, this one, that one) changes to agree in gender and number with the noun for which it stands. Its forms are:
How to Use the Demonstrative Pronouns
These words are not used by themselves, but are always followed by (1) a prepositional phrase; (2) a relative clause; or (3) the particle -ci or -là, used for emphasis or contrast.
Ce livre et celui de ma mère sont verts. This book and the one of my mother are green.
Notre voiture est celle qui est dans le garage. Our car is the one which is in the garage.
Voulez-vous ce chapeau-ci? Non, je préfère celui-là. Do you want this hat? No, I prefer that one.
Neuter Demonstrative Pronouns
The neuter demonstrative pronouns ceci and cela translate this and that respectively. Cela is frequently contracted into ça.
Study the usage of these words in the following examples. Note that ceci, cela, and ça usually refer to an idea or indefinite concept.
Ceci n’est pas trop difficile.
This is not too difficult.
Cela ne me plait pas.
I do not like that.
Qu‘est-ce que c’est que ça?
What’s that?
Ça suffit.
That is enough.
C‘est ça.
That’s it; that’s right.
Comparisons of Adjectives and Adverbs
How to Form the Comparative of Adjectives and Adverbs
In English, we have two ways of changing adjectives and adverbs from positive to comparative degree. Many of our most common adjectives and adverbs are changed by adding -er to them, i.e.: rich, richer; soon, sooner. Other adjectives and adverbs are made comparative by placing the words “more” (or “less”) in front of them, i.e. : beautiful, more beautiful; slowly, more slowly, less slowly.
In French, comparatives are formed by placing plus (or moins) in front of the adjective or adverb, i.e.: riche, plus riche; vite, plus vite, moins vite.
How to Use the Comparative in French
Elle est plus jolie que sa sœur.
She is prettier than her sister.
Vous parlez plus vite que lui.
You speak faster than he (does).
Ce village est moins intéressant que celui que nous avons visité
la semaine dernière.
This village is less interesting than the one we visited last week.
Jean est aussi intelligent que son frère.
Jean is as intelligent as his brother.
Parlez aussi lentement que moi.
Speak as slowly as I (do).
Observations on the uses of the comparative:
In comparatives, “than” is translated by que.
In French, a comparison of equality (as ... as) is expressed by aussi ... que.
Miscellaneous Comparative Expressions
Before nouns, “more” is translated as plus de, and “as much,” “as many” are translated by autant de. “So much,” “so many” are rendered by tant de.
La Cote d’Azur a plus de touristes que la Bretagne.
The Riviera has more tourists than Brittany.
II y a autant de aoitures ici qu’à Paris.
There are as many cars here as in Paris.
Nous avons encore tant de choses A faire!
We still have so many things to do!
The Superlative
The superlative degree is expressed in English by adding -est to an adjective or adverb (i.e.: rich, richest, soon, soonest), or by placing the words “most” or “least” in front of the adjective or adverb (i.e.: beautiful, most beautiful; slowly, most slowly, least slowly).
The superlative in French is expressed by placing the definite article and the words plus or moins in front of the adjective or adverb.
Je crois que c’est la région la plus pittoresque du pays.
I think that it is the most picturesque region in the country.
Pierre est le plus grand élève de la classe.
Peter is the tallest pupil in the class.
Jean lit le plus aite.
John reads the fastest.
Observations on the superlative:
The form of the definite article (le, la, les) used depends upon the noun which follows, to which the adjective refers and with which it agrees in gender and number. However, the article is always le in adverbial superlative expressions.
The word “in” after a superlative expression is translated as de.
Irregular Comparative and Superlative Forms
The comparative and superlative forms of the adjective bon (good) and the comparative of the adverb bien (well) are irregular in both languages:
Si nous allions à un meilleur restaurant, nous mangerions mieux.
If we went to a better restaurant, we would eat better.
The Relative Pronouns Qui and Que
The most important relative pronouns in French are qui (who, that, which), used as subject, and que (whom, that, which), used as object. Both qui and que may refer to persons or things, singular or plural. The following sentences illustrate their uses. Note that que becomes qu’ before a vowel, but qui does not change.
L‘homme qui vous attendait est sorti.
The man who was waiting for you has left.
L‘homme que vous attendez n’est pas encore arrivé.
The man (whom) you are waiting for has not yet arrived.
Voici un dictionnaire qui vous aidera beaucoup.
Here is a dictionary which will help you a great deal.
Je ne trouve pas le café qu‘il m’a recommandé.
I do not find the café (that) he recommended to me.
Notice in the above translations that in English we may omit the relative pronoun when used as object (whom, that, which). In French this is never permitted, and the que must be expressed. We must also point out that que is also the equivalent of the conjunction that, often omitted in English, but always included in French.
II m‘a dit qu’il ne pouvait pas venir.
He told me (that) he could not come.
Compound Relative Pronouns
The relative what is translated as ce qui when used as subject, and ce que when used as object.
Dites-moi ce qui est arrivé.
Tell me what happened.
Il nous a dit ce qu’il savait.
He told us what he knew.
Negative Expressions
As pointed out on page 16, we can make sentences negative by placing ne before the verb and pas after it. A number of other negatives may be used in the place of pas. The following are the most important:
ne ... rien
(nothing, anything)
ne ... jamais
(never)
ne ... personne
(no one, nobody)
Il ne m‘a rien dit.
He didn’t tell me anything.
Je ne fume jamais.
I never smoke.
Nous ne voyons personne.
We do not see anyone.
Rien, jamais and personne may also be used alone.
Qu’avez-vous dit? Rien.
What did you say ? Nothing.
Avez-vous été en Suisse ? Jamais.
Have you been in Switzerland ? Never.
Qui est là? Personne.
Who is there ? No one..
Idiomatic Verbs
There are a number of frequently used verbs which are extremely useful and require special discussion. The most important of these verbs have been selected, and idiomatic expressions formed with them are illustrated in the following pages.
Aller (to go)
Aller is very important as the verb used for greeting and inquiring about one’s health.
Comment allez-vous?
[How go you?]
How are you?
Comment ça va? (more popular and familiar)
[How it goes?]
How are you?
Ça va.
[It goes.]
Fine; O. K.
Je vais très bien, merci.
[I go very well, thanks.]
I’m very well, thank you.
Study also the following expressions which use the verb aller.
Nous allons à pied.
(aller à pied—to walk, LIT.: to go on foot)
We walk.
Cette robe vous va bien.
[This dress goes you well.]
This dress looks well on you.
Allons donc!
[Let’s go then!]
Come, now!
Ça va sans dire.
That goes without saying.
Remember also that the present tense of aller plus infinitive is a handy substitute for the future, as discussed on page 48.
Je vais le faire demain.
I am going to (shall) do it tomorrow.
Ils ne vont pas commencer jusqu’à mon retour.
They are not going to (will not) begin until my return.
Avoir (to have)
In addition to its important function as an auxiliary verb used in the formation of compound tenses, the very basic verb avoir (to have) is used in many special constructions.
To be hungry, thirsty, warm, cold, etc. are rendered in French as to have hunger, thirst, warmth, cold, etc.
avoir chaud (to be warm)
avoir peur (to be afraid)
J‘ai chaud.
Avez-vous peur?
[I have warmth.]
[Have you fear?]
I am warm.
Are you afraid?
avoir froid (to be cold)
avoir raison (to be right)
Il a froid.
Qui a raison?
[He has cold.]
[Who has right?]
He is cold.
Who is right?
avoir faim (to be hungry)
avoir tort (to be wrong)
Nous avons faim.
Ils ont tort.
[We have hunger.]
[They have wrong.]
We are hungry.
They are wrong.
avoir soif (to be thirsty)
avoir sommeil (to be sleepy)
Elles ont soif.
J’ai sommeil.
[They have thirst.]
[I have sleep.]
They are thirsty.
I am sleepy.
Note also the following idioms:
Qu‘avez-vous?
La conférence aura lieu ce soir.
[What have you?]
The lecture will take place this evening.
What is the matter with you?
avoir mal à l’estomac (to have a stomach ache)
J‘ai mal à l’estomac (à la tête, aux dents).
[I have ill to the stomach (to the head, to the teeth).]
I have a stomach ache (headache, toothache).
avoir besoin de (to need)
avoir envie de (to feel like)
J‘ai besoin de mon stylo.
J’ai envie de dormir toute la jóurnée.
[I have need of my pen.]
I need my pen.
[I have desire to sleep all day.] I feel like sleeping all day.
avoir de la chance (to be lucky)
Vous avez de la chance.
[You have luck.]
You are lucky.
Age is expressed by avoir followed by the number of years:
Quel age avez-vous?
J‘ai vingt-huit ans.
[What age have you?]
[I have twenty-eight years.]
How old are you?
I am twenty-eight years old.
The useful expression il y a means both there is and ago :
Il n’y a pas d’eau sur la table.
There is no water on the table.
Qu‘est-ce qu’il y a?
[What is there?]
What is the matter?
Il est sorti il y a cinq minutes.
He left five minutes ago.
Do not confuse il y a with voilà (there is, there are), used when you point out something.
Voilà l’Hôtel de Ville.
There is the City Hall.
Note also voici (here is, here are) :
Voici mes papiers.
Here are my papers.
Me voici.
Here I am.
Devoir (to owe; must, ought)
The basic meaning of devoir is “to owe.”
Qu’est-ce que je vous dois ?
What do I owe you?
It is also used (with a following infinitive) to express obligation. The conditional (je devrais) is milder and more polite than the present (je dois).
Je dois partir tout de suite.
I must leave at once.
Vous devriez la voir avant de partir.
You should see her before leaving.
J’aurais dû la voir.
I ought to have seen her.
Devoir also expresses supposition, inference, probability.
Vous devez être fatigué après votre voyage.
You must be (probably are) tired after your trip.
Il doit être malade.
He must be (probably is) sick.
&nb
sp; Etre (to be)
The verb être (to be) has been discussed on pages 39 and 51 as the auxiliary verb used in the formation of compound tenses of certain verbs and of all reflexive verbs. It is also used in the following important idiomatic expressions:
Essential French Grammar Page 6