by John N. Hale
schools: as not businesses, 176; parochial schools, 106, 125–26; private schools, 25–27, 29, 86; school reform, bottom-up approach to, 214; school-to-prison system, 14; small schools movement, 118, 124. See also charter schools; magnet schools; public education (public schools)
school vouchers. See vouchers
Schwartz v. Lopez, 209
Schwerner, Michael, 96
secession of communities from public school districts, 168–69
segregation: Brown v. Board of Education‘s impact on, 17–21; in Chicago, 39, 42–43, 49–54; Civil Rights Act and, 32; de facto segregation, 57; de facto vs. de jure, 59–60, 71, 72, 87, 93; natural segregation, 54, 70, 71, 73; in New Orleans, 160; in Northeast, 146–47; northern, 59–60; perpetuation of, 147–48, 195; resegregation, 147, 166–67; school segregation, attempted solutions for, 78–83; school segregation in Chicago, 57–61; segregation academies, 26–27; vouchers and, 4
segrenomics, 174–75
Segrue, Thomas, 55
Sellers, Cleveland, 140
Sessions, John, 27
Shanker, Al, 82, 128–29, 131, 133, 211
Siegel-Hawley, Genevieve, 181
silent majority, 89
Sillers, Walter, 18
Sippel, Drew, 155
slums and slum clearance, 53, 55, 66
small schools movement, 118, 124
Smith, Adam, 3
Smith, Michael, 152
SNCC (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee), 27, 64
social and economic capital, 176–78
sorting mechanisms for school choice, 176, 177
the South and southern states: Brown v. Board of Education, response to, 19–21, 23–26; equalization plans, 22–23; federal funding for, school desegregation and, 32–33; school desegregation in, 91, 105. See also names of individual southern states
South Carolina: Brown v. Board of Education, response to, 23; Citizens’ Councils in, 24; continued school segregation in, 25; freedom of choice plans in, 35; Gressette Committee, 30–31; post-Civil War education of African Americans in, 3; school privatization in, 26. See also Charleston, South Carolina
South East Chicago Commission, 56
“Southern Manifesto” (on resistance to desegregation), 19–20
Southern Poverty Law Center, 13
Southern Regional Council, 26 special needs/disabled students, 186–88 states: charter school legislation, 9; constitutional commitment to public education, litigation on, 209; interventionist, 44; states’ rights, 96–97, 102. See also North and northern states; South and southern
states; names of individual states
Stax Records, 155, 156
Stennis, John, 36
Stewart, Potter, 87
St. Louis, White flight from, 85
Stovall, David, 179, 194, 202
structural racism, 39
student activism, 203
Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), 27, 64 suburbs, 65, 86–88, 92, 167–68
Supreme Court: education cases, 106–7; resegregation, facilitation of, 147; on voucher programs, 109
Supreme Court (specific cases): Alexander v. Holmes County Board of Education, 26, 34, 35; Board of Education of Oklahoma City Public
Schools v. Dowell, 106, 147; Bob Jones University v. United States, 97, 117; Brown v. Board of Education, 7, 17–18, 44, 64, 67, 70, 143, 169; Buchanan v. Warley, 50; Coit v. Green, 117; Freeman v. Pitts, 106; Green v. County School Board of Kent County, 26, 35, 73; Griffin v. County School Board of Prince Edward County, 24, 34; Hansberry v. Lee, 52; Keyes v. School District No. 1, Denver, 87; Milliken v. Bradley, 87–88, 91, 95, 120, 121; Missouri v. Jenkins, 106; Parents Involved in Community Schools v.
Seattle School District, 147; Plessy v. Ferguson, 22, 169; Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education, 73, 107; Zelman v.
Simmons-Harris, 110, 126–27, 145
Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education, 73, 107
tax credits, for private school costs, 97
teachers and teachers’ unions: attacks on, 183–85, 191, 204; charter schools and, 128–29, 130; A Nation at Risk and, 99–100; in politics, 206–7; right-to-work (anti-union) legislation, 47; strikes by, 203–5; United Federation of Teachers (UFT), 81–83
Teach for America, 182, 184
Tennessee, school reform in, 154–57. See also Memphis
testing mandates, 102, 107–8, 109, 111
Theoharis, Jeanne, 82
Thomas, Cal, 164
Thompson, Allen, 36
Thompson, Tommy, 103, 125, 140, 153–54
Thurmond, Strom, 7, 92, 93
Till, Emmett, 20
Timmerman, George Bell, 28
Todd-Breland, Elizabeth, 57, 78, 83
Trump, Donald: on African American children, education of, 12; charter schools, proposed support for, 219n12; DeVos, nomination of, 114, 172; on school choice, 144, 163; school choice rhetoric, 159; school privatization agenda, 162
tuition grants. See vouchers
Turner, Bobby, 131
United Federation of Teachers (UFT), 81–83
United States constitution, lack of mention of education in, 189–90
University of Chicago, 39, 43, 49, 54–57
Urban Hope Act (2012, New Jersey), 190
urban renewal, 53
Vallas, Paul, 202
venture philanthropists, 110, 113
Veterans Administration, 50
Villaraigosa, Antonio, 185
Virginia: Brown v. Board of Education, response to, 24; continued school segregation in, 25; Defenders of State Sovereignty and Individual Liberties, 28; freedom of choice plans, 46; Prince Edward County, public school closures in, 24, 34, 46; private schools in, 26–27; States’ Rights Party, 30
virtual schooling (online education, cyber schools), 135–38
vouchers: DeVos’s support for, 115; discussion of, 123–28; historical use of, 3–4; origins of, 25–26; philanthropic support for, 110–11; public funding for, 110; Reagan and, 97; Wisconsin voucher program, 153–54
Waldron, John, 207
Walker, Scott, 207
Walker, Wyatt Tee, 142–46, 179
Wallace, George, 92
Walsh, Camille, 68
Walton, Alice, 185
Walton Family Foundation, 110, 114, 170, 171, 186
Wang, Jia, 181
Waring, Thomas, 25
Warren, Elizabeth, 159, 162
Washington, DC: charter schools in, 166; John Philip Sousa Middle School, 146
wealth, impact on school choice, 170–71
Webb, Roblin, 157
Webb v. Board of Education, 57–58, 60
Weir, Margaret, 55
Weiss, Joanna, 113
White, Bobby, 156
White, Kevin H., 76
White, Terrenda, 179, 211
White Circle League, 50
Whites: Brown v. Board of Education, response to, 18–21; charter schools and, 2–3; desegregation’s impact on, 212–13; northern, 64–66, 93; profit motives of, 175; race, lack of understanding of, 7; race-neutral rhetoric, use of, 169–70; school integration, responses to, 67–71; southern, states’ rights and, 28; in suburbs, 65, 167–68; White flight, 4, 49, 52, 73, 85–86, 117–18, 120, 123; White fragility, 81; White privilege, Friedman and, 42; White resistance (see racism and foundations of school choice model); White rights, defense of, 28–29
Williams, John Bell, 35, 72
Williams, Polly, 146, 152, 153, 210
Willis, Benjamin C., 57, 58, 59
Winter, William, 101
Wisconsin: private school voucher plan, 140; teachers in politics in, 207–8; teachers’ unions in, 183; voucher program, 153–54. See also Milwaukee
X, Malcolm, 89, 140
Zelman v. Simmons-Harris, 110, 126–27, 145
BEACON PRESS
Boston, Massachusetts
www.beacon.org
Beacon Press books are published under the auspices of the Unitarian Universa
list Association of Congregations.
© 2021 by Jon N. Hale
All rights reserved
Text design and composition by Kim Arney
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Name: Hale, Jon N., author.
Title: The choice we face : how segregation, race, and power have shaped
America’s most controversial education reform movement / Jon N. Hale.
Description: Boston : Beacon Press, [2021] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021005011 (print) | LCCN 2021005012 (ebook) | ISBN 9780807087480 (hardcover) | ISBN 9780807087503 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: School choice—United States—History. |
Discrimination in education—United States—History.
Classification: LCC LB1027.9 .H33 2021 (print) | LCC LB1027.9 (ebook) |
DDC 378.1/61—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021005011
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021005012