Fields of Blood

by Karen Armstrong

  60.M. G. Hutt, “The Role of the Cures in the Estates General of 1789,” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 6 (1955).

  61. George Lefebvre, The Great Fear of 1789 , trans. R. R. Farmer and Joan White (Princeton, NJ, 1973).

  62. Philip G. Dwyer, Talleyrand (London, 2002), p. 24.

  63. Ibid., pp. 61–62.

  64. Mark A. Noll, The Old Religion in a New World: The History of North American Christianity (Grand Rapids, MI, 2002), pp. 82–83; Gertrude Himmelfarb, The Roads to Modernity (New York, 2004), pp. 18–19.

  65. Burleigh, Earthly Powers, pp. 96–101; Claude Petitfrère, “The Origins of the Civil War in the Vendée,” French History 2 (1988): 99–100.

  66. Instructions from the Committee of Public Safety (1794), cited in Burleigh, Earthly Powers, p. 100.

  67. Reynald Secher, Le génocide franco-français: La Vendée-vengée (Paris, 1986), pp. 158–59.

  68. Jonathan North, “General Hocte and Counterinsurgency,” Journal of Military History 67 (2003).

  69. Mircea Eliade, Patterns in Comparative Religion, trans. Rosemary Sheed (London, 1958), p. 11.

  70. Burleigh, Earthly Powers, pp. 79–80, 76.

  71. Jules Michelet, Historical View of the French Revolution from Its Earliest Indications to the Flight of the King in 1791 , trans. C. Cooks (London, 1888), p. 393.

  72. Burleigh, Earthly Powers, p. 81.

  73. Boyd C. Schafer, Nationalism, Myth and Reality (New York, 1952), p. 142.

  74. Alexis de Tocqueville, The Old Regime and the French Revolution, ed. François Furet and Françoise Melonio (Chicago, 1998), 1:101.

  75. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Politics and the Arts, Letter to M. D’Alembert on the Theatre, trans. Allan Bloom (Ithaca, NY, 1960), p. 126.

  76. Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract and Other Later Political Writings, ed. Victor Gourevitch (Cambridge, UK, 1997), pp. 150–51.

  77. Donald Greer, The Incidence of Terror in the French Revolution (Gloucester, MA, 1935).

  78. John Keegan, A History of Warfare (London and New York, 1993), pp. 348–59; Robert L. O’Connell, Of Arms and Men: A History of Weapons and Aggression (New York and Oxford, 1989), pp. 174–88; William H. McNeill, The Pursuit of Power: Technology, Armed Force, and Society Since AD 1000 (Chicago, 1984), pp. 185–215.

  79. Russell Weigley, The Age of Battles: The Quest for Decisive Warfare from Breitenfeld to Waterloo (Bloomington, IN, 1991), O’Connell, Of Arms and Men, pp. 148–50.

  80. John U. Neff, War and Human Progress: An Essay on the Rise of Industrial Civilization (New York, 1950), pp. 204–5; Theodore Ropp, War in the Modern World (Durham, NC, 1959), pp. 25–26.

  81. Keegan, History of Warfare, p. 344; O’Connell, Arms and Men, pp. 157–66; McNeill, Pursuit of Power, p. 172.

  82. Quoted in McNeill, Pursuit of Power, p. 192.

  83. Keegan, History of Warfare, pp. 350, 351–52.

  84. O’ Connell, Arms and Men, p. 185.

  85. George Annesley, The Rise of Modern Egypt: A Century and a Half of Egyptian History (Durham, UK, 1997), p. 7.

  86. Nicholas Turc: Chronique d’Égypte, 1798–1804, ed. and trans. Gaston Wait (Cairo, 1950), p. 78.

  87. Peter Jay, Road to Riches, or The Wealth of Man (London, 2000), pp. 205–36; Gerhard E. Lenski, Power and Privilege: A Theory of Social Stratification (Chapel Hill, NC, and London, 1966), pp. 297–392; Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam, Conscience and History in a World Civilization, 3 vols. (Chicago and London, 1974), 3:195–201.

  88. Hodgson, Venture of Islam, 3:194.

  89. John H. Kautsky, The Politics of Aristocratic Empires, 2nd ed. (New Brunswick, NJ, and London, 1997), p. 349. Even fascist governments were coalitions.

  90. Hodgson, Venture of Islam, 3:199–201; G. W. F. Hegel, Elements of the Philosophy of Right, ed. Allen W. Wood, trans. H. B. Nisbet (Cambridge, UK, 1991), paragraphs 246, 248.

  91. John H. Kautsky, The Political Consequences of Modernization (New York, London, Sydney, and Toronto, 1972), pp. 60–61.

  92. Hodgson, Venture of Islam, 3:208; Bassam Tibi, The Crisis of Political Islam: A Pre-Industrial Culture in the Scientific-Technological Age (Salt Lake City, UT, 1988), pp. 1–25.

  93. Hodgson, Venture of Islam, 3:210–12.

  94. O’Connell, Of Arms and Men, p. 235; Percival Spear, India (Ann Arbor, MI, 1961), p. 270.

  95. Daniel Gold, “Organized Hinduisms: From Vedic Truth to Hindu Nation,” in Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms Observed (Chicago and London, 1991), pp. 534–37.

  96. Wilfred Cantwell Smith, The Meaning and End of Religion: A New Approach to the Religious Traditions of Mankind (New York, 1964), pp. 61–62.

  97. Patwant Singh, The Sikhs (New York, 1999).

  98. Guru Garth Sahib, 1136, cited ibid., p. 18.

  99. John Clark Archer, The Sikhs in Relation to Hindus, Christians, and Ahmadiyas (Princeton, NJ, 1946), p. 170.

  100. T. N. Madan, “Fundamentalism and the Sikh Religious Tradition,” in Marty and Appleby, Fundamentalisms, p. 602.

  101. Kenneth W. Jones, “The Arya Samaj in British India, 1875–1947,” in Robert D. Baird, ed., Religion in Modern India (Delhi, 1981), pp. 50–52.

  102. Madan, “Fundamentalism and the Sikh Religious Tradition,” p. 605.

  103. Ibid., pp. 603–6.

  104. Harjot S. Oberoi, “From Ritual to Counter Ritual: Rethinking the Hindu-Sikh Question, 1884–1015,” in Joseph T. O’Connell, ed., Sikh History and Religion in the Twentieth Century (Toronto, 1988), pp. 136–40.

  105. N. Gould Barrier, “Sikhs and Punjab Politics,” ibid.

  106. Madan, “Fundamentalism and the Sikh Religious Tradition,” p. 617.

  107. Mumtaz Ahmad, “Islamic Fundamentalism in South Asia: The Jama’at-i-Islami and the Tablighi Jamaat,” in Marty and Appleby, Fundamentalisms, p. 460.

  108. O’Connell, Arms and Men, pp. 231–35, 191, 233.

  109. G. W. Stevans, With Kitchener to Khartoum (London, 1898), p. 300.

  110. Sir John Ardagh, speech, June 22, 1899, in The Proceedings of the Hague Peace Conference (London, 1920), pp. 286–87.

  111. Elbridge Colby, “How to Fight Savage Tribes,” American Journal of International Law 21, no. 2 (1927); author’s emphasis.

  112. Ernest Gellner, Nations and Nationalism: New Perspectives on the Past (Oxford, 1983), passim.

  113. Anthony Giddens, The Nation-State and Violence (Berkeley, CA, 1987), p. 89.

  114. Ibid., pp. 85–89; William T. Cavanaugh, Migrations of the Holy: God, State, and the Political Meaning of the Church (Grand Rapids, MI, 2011), pp. 18–19.

  115. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (London and New York, 2003).

  116. Mark Levene, Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State, vol. 3: The Rise of the West and the Coming of Genocide (London and New York, 2005), pp. 26–27, 112–20; David Stannard, American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World (New York and Oxford, 1992), p. 120; Ward Churchill, A Little Matter of Genocide, Holocaust, and Denial in the Americas, 1492 to the Present (San Francisco, 1997), p. 150; Anthony F. C. Wallace, Jefferson and the Indians: The Tragic Fate of the First Americans (Cambridge, MA, 1999).

  117. Norman Cantor, The Sacred Chain: A History of the Jews (London, 1995), pp. 236–37.

  118. John Stuart Mill, Utilitarianism, Liberty, and Representational Government (London, 1910), pp. 363–64.

  119. Quoted in Antony Smith, Myths and Memories of the Nation (Oxford, 1999), p. 33.

  120. Cited in Levene, Genocide, pp. 150–51. Cf. C. A. Macartney, National States and National Minorities (London, 1934), p. 17.

  121. Bruce Lincoln, Holy Terrors: Thinking About Religion After September 11 , 2nd ed. (Chicago and London, 2006), pp. 62–63.

  122. Johann Gottlieb Fichte, “What a People Is, and What Is Love of Fatherland,” in Fichte, Addresses to the German Nation, ed. and trans. Gregory Moore (Cambridge, UK, 2008), p. 105.

  123. Zinn, Peop
le’s History, pp. 23–58; Basil Davidson, The African Slave Trade (Boston, 1961); Stanley Elkins, Slavery: A Problem of American Institutional and Intellectual Life (Chicago, 1796); Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom: The Ordeal of Colonial Virginia (New York, 1975).

  124. Leviticus 25:45–46; Genesis 9:25–27, 17:12; Deuteronomy 20:10–11; I Corinthians 7:21; Romans 13:1,7; Colossians 3:22, 4:1; I Timothy 6:1–2; Philemon.

  125. Rev. J. H. Thornwell, “Our National Sins,” in Fast Day Sermons or The Pulpit on the State of the Country, ed. anonymous (1890; reprint Charleston, SC, 2009 ed.), p. 48.

  126. Rev. Henry Ward Beecher, “Peace, Be Still,” ibid., p. 276.

  127. Rev. Henry J. Van Dyke, “The Character and Influence of Abolitionism,” ibid., p. 137.

  128. Tayler Lewis, “Patriarchal and Jewish Servitude: No Argument for American Slavery” ibid., p. 180.

  129. Noll, Civil War, pp. 1–8.

  130. Ibid., pp. 19–22; Mark A. Noll, “The Rise and Long Life of the Protestant Enlightenment in America,” in William M. Shea and Peter A. Huff, eds., Knowledge and Belief in America: Enlightenment Trends and Modern Thought (New York, 1995), pp. 84–124; Henry F. May, The Enlightenment in America (New York, 1976), passim.

  131. James M. McPherson, For Cause and Comrades: Why Men Fought in the Civil War (New York, 1997), p. 63; McPherson, “Afterword,” in Randall M. Miller, Harry S. Stout, and Charles Reagan Wilson, eds., Religion and the American Civil War (New York, 1998), p. 412.

  132. McPherson, For Cause and Comrades, pp. 52–79.

  133. Henry Ward Beecher, “Abraham Lincoln,” in Beecher, Patriotic Addresses in America and England, from 1850 to 1885 … (New York, 1887), p. 711.

  134. Horace Bushnell, “Our Obligations to the Dead,” in Bushnell, Building Eras in Religion (New York, 1881), pp. 328–29.

  135. O’Connell, Arms and Men, pp. 189–96.

  136. Grady McWhiney and Perry D. Jamieson, Attack and Die: The Civil War, Military Tactics, and Southern Heritage (Montgomery, AL, 1982), pp. 4–7.

  137. Bruce Cotton, Grant Takes Command (Boston, 1968), p. 262.

  138. O’Connell, Arms and Men, pp. 198–99.

  139. Noll, Civil War, pp. 90–92.

  140. Alister McGrath, The Twilight of Atheism: The Rise and Fall of Disbelief in the Modern World (London and New York, 2006), pp. 52–55, 60–66.

  141.James R. Moore, “Geologists and Interpreters of Genesis in the Nineteenth Century,” in David C. Lindberg and Ronald L. Numbers, eds., God and Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science (New York, 1986), pp. 341–43.

  142. Noll, Civil War, pp. 159–62.

  143. Richard Maxwell Brown, Strain of Violence: Historical Studies of American Violence and Vigilantism (New York, 1975), pp. 217–18.

  144. O’Connell, Arms and Men, pp. 202–10; McNeill, Pursuit of Power, pp. 242–55.

  145. I. F. Clarke, Voices Prophesying War: Future Wars 1763–3749 , rev. ed. (Oxford and New York, 1992), pp. 37–88.

  146. Paul Johnson, A History of the Jews (London, 1987), p. 365.

  147. Zygmunt Bauman, Modernity and the Holocaust (Ithaca, NY, 1989), pp. 40–77.

  148. Amos Elon, The Israelis: Founders and Sons, 2nd ed.(London, 1981), pp. 112, 338.

  149. Eric J. Leed, No Man’s Land: Combat and Identity in World War I (Cambridge, UK, 1979), pp. 39–72.

  150. Stefan Zweig, The World of Yesterday, trans. Anthea Bell (New York, 1945), p. 224.

  151. Leed, No Man’s Land, p. 55.

  152. Ibid., p. 47; Zweig, World of Yesterday, p. 24.

  153. Quoted in H. Hafkesbrink, Unknown Germany: An Inner Chronicle of the First World War Based on Letters and Diaries (New Haven, CT, 1948), p. 37.

  154. Rudolf G. Binding, Erlebtes Leben (Frankfurt, 1928), p. 237, cited in Leed, No Man’s Land, p. 43.

  155. Carl Zuckmayer, Pro Domo (Stockholm, 1938), pp. 34–35.

  156. Franz Schauwecker, The Fiery Way, trans. Thonald Holland (London and Toronto, 1929), p. 29.

  157. Quoted in Carl E. Schorske, German Social Democracy, 1905–1917: The Development of the Great Schism (Cambridge, MA, 1955), p. 390.

  158. Leed, No Man’s Land, p. 29.

  159. Philipp Witkop, ed., Kriegsbriefe gefallener Studenten (Munich, 1936), p. 100, cited ibid.

  160. T. E. Lawrence, The Mint (New York, 1963), p. 32.

  161. Simone de Beauvoir, Memoirs of a Dutiful Daughter (New York, 1974), p. 180.

  162. Emilio Lussu, Sardinian Brigade (New York, 1939), p. 167.

  11 ♦ RELIGION FIGHTS BACK

  1. I have explained this at length in The Battle for God: A History of Fundamentalism (London and New York, 2000).

  2. John Calvin, Commentary on Genesis 1:6, in The Commentaries of John Calvin on the Old Testament, 30 vols. (Westminster, UK, 1643–48), 1:86. For a fuller account of the traditional nonliteral interpretation of scripture in both Judaism and Christianity, see my The Bible: The Biography (London and New York, 2007).

  3. Charles Hodge, What Is Darwinism? (Princeton, NJ, 1874), p. 142.

  4. 2 Thessalonians 2:3–12; Revelation 16:15; Paul Boyer, When Time Shall Be No More: Prophecy Belief in American Culture (Cambridge, MA, 1992), p. 192; George M. Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture (Oxford, 2006), pp. 154–55.

  5. Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture, pp. 90–92; Robert C. Fuller, Naming the Antichrist: The History of an American Obsession (Oxford, 1995), p. 119.

  6. Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture, pp. 184–89; R. Laurence Moore, Religious Outsiders and the Making of Americans (Oxford and New York, 1986), pp. 160–63; Ronald L. Numbers, The Creationists: The Evolution of Scientific Creationism (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 1992), pp. 41–44, 48–50; Ferenc Morton Szasz, The Divided Mind of Protestant America, 1880–1930 (University, AL, 1982), pp. 117–35.

  7. Marsden, Fundamentalism and American Culture, pp. 187–88.

  8. Aurobindo Ghose, Essays on the Gita (Pondicherry, 1972), p. 39.

  9. Louis Fischer, ed., The Essential Gandhi (New York, 1962), p. 193.

  10. Mahatma Gandhi, “My Mission,” Young India, April 3, 1924, in Judith M. Brown, ed., Mahatma Gandhi: Essential Writings (Oxford and New York, 2008), p. 5.

  11. Mahatma Gandhi, “Farewell,” An Autobiography, ibid., p. 65.

  12. Kenneth W. Jones, “The Arya Samaj in British India, 1875–1947” in Robert D. Baird, ed., Religion in Modern India (Delhi, 1981), pp. 44–45.

  13. Radhey Shyam Pareek, Contribution of Arya Samaj in the Making of Modern India, 1875 – 1947 (New Delhi, 1973), pp. 325–26.

  14. Daniel Gold, “Organized Hinduisms: From Vedic Truth to Hindu Nation,” in Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, eds., Fundamentalisms Observed (Chicago and London, 1991), pp. 533–42.

  15. Vinayak Damdar Savarkar, Hindutva (Bombay, 1969), p. 1.

  16. Gold, “Organized Hinduisms,” pp. 575–80.

  17. M. S. Golwalkar, We or Our Nationhood Defined (Nagpur, 1939), pp. 47–48, 35.

  18. Sudhir Kakar, The Colors of Violence: Cultural Identities, Religion, and Conflict (Chicago and London, 1996), pp. 31, 38.

  19. Gold, “Organized Hinduisms,” pp. 531–32; Sushil Srivastava, “The Ayodhya Controversy: A Third Dimension,” Probe India, January 1988.

  20. Sayyid Abul Ala Mawdudi, The Islamic Way of Life (Lahore, 1979), p. 37.

  21. Charles T. Adams, “Mawdudi and the Islamic State,” in John Esposito, ed., Voices of Resurgent Islam (New York and Oxford, 1983); Youssef M. Choueiri, Islamic Fundamentalism: The Story of Islamist Movements (London and New York, 2010), pp. 94–139.

  22. Mumtaz Ahmad, “Islamic Fundamentalism in South Asia,” in Marty and Appleby, Fundamentalisms, pp. 487–500.

  23. Abul Ala Mawdudi, Tafhim-al-Qur’an, in Mustansire Mir, “Some Features of Mawdudi’s Tafhim al-Quran,” American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 2, no. 2 (1985): 242.

  24. Introducing the Jamaat-e Islami Hind, i
n Ahmad, “Islamic Fundamentalism in South Asia,” pp. 505–6.

  25. Ibid., pp. 500–501.

  26. Khurshid Ahmad and Zafar Ushaq Ansari, Islamic Perspectives (Leicester, UK, 1979), pp. 378–81.

  27. Abul Ala Mawdudi, “Islamic Government,” Asia 20 (September 1981): 9.

  28. Rafiuddin Ahmed, “Redefining Muslim Identity in South Asia: The Transformation of the Jama’at-i-Islami,” in Martin E. Marty and R. Scott Appleby, Accounting for Fundamentalisms: The Dynamic Character of Movements (Chicago and London, 1994), p. 683.

  29. The Ahmadis were said to be heretical because their founder, M. G. Ahmad (d. 1908), had claimed to be a prophet.

  30. Ahmad, “Islamic Fundamentalism in South Asia,” pp. 587–89.

  31. Abul Ala Mawdudi, “How to Establish Islamic Order in the Country,” Universal Message, May 1983, pp. 9–10.

  32. Marshall G. S. Hodgson, The Venture of Islam: Conscience and History in a World Civilization, 3 vols. (Chicago and London, 1974), 3:218–19.

  33. George Annesley, The Rise of Modern Egypt: A Century and a Half of Egyptian History (Durham, UK, 1997), pp. 62, 51–56.

  34. Hodgson, Venture of Islam, 3:71.

  35. Nikki R. Keddie, Roots of Revolution: An Interpretive History of Modern Iran (New Haven, CT, and London, 1981), pp. 72–73, 82.

  36.John Kautsky, The Political Consequences of Modernization (New York, London, Sydney, and Toronto, 1972), pp. 146–47.

  37. Bruce Lincoln, Holy Terrors: Thinking About Religion After September 11 , 2nd ed. (Chicago and London, 2006), pp. 63–65.

  38. Daniel Crecelius, “Non-Ideological Responses of the Ulema to Modernization,” in Nikki R. Keddie, ed., Scholars, Saints, and Sufis: Muslim Religious Institutions in the Middle East Since 1500 (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 1972), pp. 181–82.

  39. Gilles Kepel, Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam, trans. Anthony F. Roberts, 4th ed. (London, 2009), p. 53.

  40. Alastair Crooke, Resistance: The Essence of the Islamist Revolution (London, 2009), pp. 54–58.

  41. Bobby Sayyid, A Fundamental Fear: Eurocentrism and the Emergence of Islamism (London, 1997), p. 57.