civil wars (internal wars). See internal wars (civil wars)
code of decolonization, 89–96, 121, 302. See also decolonization settlement
cold war: decolonization and, 15–16, 118; integral state and, 23; internal wars and, 23, 245–46; international system and, 135; security imperative and, 46, 190, 349; security services and, 46; single party system in context of, 18; sovereignty and, 15
Coleman, James, 111
Colin, Jean, 119
Collier, Ruth, 78, 115
colonial state: overview of, 6, 35, 87–88; accumulation imperative and, 49; Africa as concept and, 6; authoritarianism and, 92–93; autocratic rule and, 6; autonomy imperative and, 51, 153–54; black identity and, 292; Christianity and, 322; economic prosperity and, 13–14; education system and, 166, 241; ethnicity in context of military rule and, 149; health services and, 241; hegemony imperative and, 51; hybrid state and, 70; legacy of, 118–20, 121, 336–39, 344, 355–56, 430n25; legislatures and, 119; monarchy and, 127; nationalism and, 110–11, 308, 398n62; natural resources and, 356; normative state and, 139, 402n20; parliamentarianism and, 95, 100; regime structure and, 78; security imperative and, 129; state weakness and, 72; territorial integrity and, 301; territorial nationalism and, 302–3; welfare mission and, 13; white minority rule and, 97. See also state
Comoros: cultural homogeneity and, 219; decolonization and, 377n21; development ranking for, 359, 360–61, 391n125; ethnicity and, 310; ethnonationalism and, 309; Mayotte and, 92, 161, 391n125, 393n12; state failure and, 75, 210, 391n125; territoriality and, 92, 393n12
Congo-Brazzaville: Afromarxism and, 379n63; Christianity and, 322; democratization as unsuccessful and, 220; development ranking for, 360–61, 361; ethnonationalism and, 322; internal wars and, 30, 124, 281–82, 381n90; Marxism-Leninism and, 60–61, 148; military coups and rule in, 143, 145, 148, 286; militias and, 220; natural resources and, 277, 281–82; patrimonialism and, 71; security imperative and, 129; single party system and, 143; territoriality and, 91
Congo-Kinshasa (formerly Belgian Congo): overview and title for, 375n2; Christianity and, 322; colonial legacy in, 118; colonial state and, 13, 100, 123, 337, 398n62; constitutionalism and, 158; debt crisis and, 81, 358; decolonization and, 11, 18; democratization as unsuccessful and, 210; development and, 335, 358, 359, 360–61, 363–64; development projects and, 133; economics and, 13; education system and, 325; ethnicity and, 323; ethnonationalism and, 313, 321–22, 425n45; foreign aid and, 161; genocidal violence and, 245; hegemony imperative and, 153; indigeneity and, 284, 331; Inga dam and, 57–58, 81, 180–82, 186; Inga-Katanga power line and, 20, 22–23, 57–58, 180–82, 186, 408n57; institutional frames and, 116, 117; integral state and, 56–58, 160, 162; internal wars and, 19, 30, 123, 210, 234, 236–37, 276–78, 381n90, 420n81; international peacekeeping and, 277–78; legal status in context of decolonization and, 106; legitimation imperative and, 175; liberalization and, 62–63; management capacity of state and, 104–5, 283, 397nn48–49; military coups and rule in, 18, 19, 143, 144, 147, 150; militias and, 237, 245, 248, 286; monarchy’s disappearance and, 127–28; national conference mechanism blocked and, 199; nationalizations and, 21; natural resources and, 20, 235, 277; pathways to independence and, 99–101, 366, 395nn33–34, 395n34, 395n36, 396n37, 396n39; patrimonialism and, 69–70, 71, 389n102; political parties and, 14; revenue imperative and, 356, 357; security imperative and, 155, 349; security state and, 46, 69–70; single party system and, 18, 70, 130, 131, 138; social services and, 133; sovereignty and, 95; state crisis and, 20, 22–23, 57–58, 81, 160–62, 180–82, 186, 408n57; state decline and, 83; state failure and, 75, 76, 234, 236–37; state in social imaginary and, 305–6, 355; state persistence and, 303, 304–5; territorial integrity and, 245; territoriality and, 393n11; territorial nationalism and, 305–6; timetables for decolonization and, 96, 394n21; violence and disorder by governments and, 75; world regions comparisons and, 342–43. See also specific ethnic groups and leaders
constitutionalism: overview of, 39; decolonization settlement breakdown and, 122–24; democratization and, 26–28, 118, 119, 198, 199, 369, 373, 411n21; institutional frames and, 115–20; integral state and, 59, 404n6; international system and, 65, 372; legislatures and, 11, 29, 71, 119, 209, 217; legitimation imperative and, 47, 155; liberal market model and, 64–65; military intervention and, 144, 147, 151–53; monarchy and, 125–26; national conference mechanism and, 198–99; patrimonialism and, 70; regime structure and, 7, 77; revenue imperative and, 48; ruler’s imperative and, 79, 82; single party system and, 16, 128–30, 137; sovereignty and, 39; state and, 5, 33–34, 83
constructivism, 316, 318–19, 425n57. See also ethnicity
continental perspective, 4–5
Cooper, Frederick, 72, 88, 98
corruption, 24, 149–50. See also personal rule
Coulon, Christian, 55
credibility for states. See legitimation imperative
Crowder, Michael, 369
crusher of rocks (bula matari), 100, 123, 337
Cuba, 197, 233, 235–37, 245–46, 280–81, 283, 349
cultural pluralism, 217, 218–19, 220, 316, 319–20, 333, 369
Daloz, Jean-Pascal, 75
Darfur: human rights abuses and, 39; international peacekeeping and, 298; liberation movement and, 307; pan-Africanism and, 298; separatism and, 241–42, 248, 268, 270, 273–75, 289, 359; sovereignty and, 39. See also Sudan
Darood, 262–63, 265, 268
Darwin, John, 88
debt crisis, 24–25, 61, 161, 357–58, 392n139, 432n52. See also state crisis
Decalo, Samuel, 21, 145, 150
decolonization settlement: overview of, 8–9, 10, 87, 120–21; Africa as concept and, 6–7; anticolonial nationalism and, 12–13, 88, 111, 113, 114; armed liberation struggles in context of blocked, 103, 107–10; Britain and, 11, 87–88, 103–4, 105, 118, 392n5; code of decolonization and, 89–96, 121, 302; cold war context for, 15–16, 118; colonial legacy and, 118–20, 121, 336–39; development and, 6–7, 15; European autocracies in context of blocked, 101–3, 396nn40–41, 396n43; federalism and, 116–17; foreign investments and, 49–50, 60; France and, 11–12, 96, 103, 104, 106, 377n21; independence elections and, 12; institutional frames and, 115–18, 400n84, 400nn87–88; legal status in context of, 103, 105–7; legislatures and, 11; multiracialism and, 115; nationalism and, 12–13, 110–14, 308, 399nn76–77; pathways to independence and, 99–101, 395nn33–34, 395n34, 395n36, 396n37, 396n39; political parties and, 14–15, 94–95; power transfer comparisons and, 96–98, 394n23, 395n25, 395n28; representative institutions and, 92–93, 394n15; self-determination and, 88, 91; sovereignty and, 95–96, 394n19, 394n20; state management of, 103–5, 397nn48–49; territorial integrity and, 90, 92, 121, 300; territoriality and, 87–89, 89–92, 393nn8–12; timetables for, 96, 115; universal suffrage and, 93–94, 130–31, 394n16; world regions comparisons and, 10–11, 15, 89. See also specific states
decolonization settlement breakdown: overview of, 122–24, 153–57; accumulation imperative and, 156–57, 157; autocratic rule and, 136–37; autonomy imperative and, 153–54; constitutionalism and, 122–24; demarcation of independent states and, 131–32; hegemony imperative and, 153; international system and, 134–37; legitimation imperative and, 155; military coups, intervention and rule in, 124, 134, 140–53, 146, 157, 365, 402n25, 402n27, 403n29, 403n34; monarchy’s disappearance and, 124–28; revenue imperative and, 155–56; security imperative and, 154–55; single party system and, 128–31; social class and, 133–34; social services and, 132–33. See also decolonization settlement; single party system
democracy, 217–19, 220, 369–70, 373–74. See also constitutionalism; democratization; elections
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). See Congo-Kinshasa (formerly Belgian Congo)
Democratic Unionist Party (DUP), 142, 270, 400n88
democratization: overview of, 9, 10, 26–28, 194–95, 221–24, 223, 381n83, 414n67; aborted transitions and, 202–6, 209–12, 220–21; Afromarxism and
, 26, 27, 264; after military intervention, 18, 145, 151, 251–52; civil society and, 197–99, 209, 218, 223; civil society coups and, 223–24, 414n69; constitutionalism and, 26–28, 118, 119, 198, 199, 369, 373, 411n21; electoral democracy and, 18, 145, 151; federalism and, 204; foreign aid and, 64; genocidal violence and, 205–6, 220; global environment post–cold war and, 197, 205, 221; governance and, 198; integral state and, 210, 412n39; internal wars and, 195; law and, 198; leadership, 26; legislatures and, 29; legitimation imperative and, 195; liberalization and, 26, 65, 66; liberal market model and, 210; military coups and, 221, 223; militias and, 206, 220; mixed outcomes for, 207, 208, 209–10; multiple party system and, 27, 71, 196, 199, 201–2, 205–7, 209, 214–15, 219, 221, 351; narcotics trafficking and, 203; national conference mechanism and, 27, 198–99; parliamentarianism and, 195, 200, 201, 203, 209, 211, 213, 220; pathways to independence and, 28–29; patrimonialism and, 9; property rights and, 48; reconciliation and, 210, 412n38; regime structure and, 208, 208; religion as identity system and, 219; security services and, 223–24; semidemocratization and, 28–29, 65, 70–71, 194–95, 209–10, 218, 221; shari’a and, 419n67; single party system and, 16–17; state crisis and, 177; state decline and, 68; successful transitions and, 200–202; survival of, 195–96; term limits and, 200, 203, 209, 365–66; “third wave” metaphor and, 26, 194; white minority rule and, 27–28. See also democracy
Deng, Francis, 21, 242, 271–72, 306, 315–16, 419n68
dependency theory, 22, 52, 60, 160, 386n54
development: overview of, 335–36; authoritarianism and, 217–18, 363; China and, 7, 15, 118; decolonization settlement and, 6–7, 15; democracy and, 217–18; economics and, 14, 54–55, 161–62, 371, 433n68; environmental constraints on, 345; integral state and, 161–62; internal wars and, 345–46, 350–51; leadership and, 364–66; nationalization and, 14, 54–55, 161; rankings for, 358, 358–59, 360–61, 361–64, 366, 432n52, 432n55, 432n60; socialism and, 357; Soviet Union and, 6–7, 15; world regions comparisons, 8, 335
development projects: Ajaokuta steel mill and, 133, 162, 180, 182–86, 408n61; Inga dam and, 57–58, 81, 180–82, 186; Inga-Katanga power line and, 20, 22–23, 57–58, 180–82, 186, 408n57. See also natural resources
de Waal, Alex, 271
diaspora: democratization and, 206, 220; ethnic identity and, 320–21; integral state and, 339; internal wars and, 240, 252, 260, 263–65, 280; militias and, 263–65; pan-Africanism and, 112, 293–94, 296; remittances and, 59, 163, 265, 372
Dinka, 270–72
Diola, 248, 282, 284, 285, 301, 307
Diop, Cheikh Anta, 112, 282, 297
Diouf, Abdou, 64, 222, 282
Diouf, Mamadou, 120
Djibouti, 129, 154–55, 320, 349, 360–61, 361, 365, 377n21
Doe, Samuel, 145, 151, 193, 247, 250–53, 349
Du Bois, W. E. B., 294
Easterly, William, 346
Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), 257, 287–88, 298
economics: autonomy imperative and, 352–53; capitalism and, 22, 34, 73–74; colonial period prosperity and, 13–14; colonial state and, 13–14; development and, 14, 54–55, 161–62, 371, 433n68; diaspora remittances and, 59, 163, 265, 372; foreign investments and, 49–50, 60, 65–66, 357, 419n71; informal economy and, 73, 168, 189, 284; internal wars and, 255, 271–73, 286; militias and, 271–73, 286; social services and, 156, 161; sovereignty and, 15; state crisis and, 177–79, 186, 187; state failure and, 167–70, 391n125; world regions comparisons, 344, 430n27. See also foreign aid; structural adjustment programs (SAPs)
Edelman, Murray, 43
education system: children and, 363; Christian missions and, 241; colonial state and, 166, 241; ethnicity and, 325, 426n76; funding for, 20, 161, 164; internal wars and, 244, 255, 262; international system and, 132, 134; liberal market model and, 62; social class and, 325; social status and, 99, 132, 134, 255; state and, 43, 69, 105; state capacity and, 174; state decline and, 262; territorial nationalism and, 310–11; universal, 363; world regions comparisons and, 340
Egypt: Arab identity and, 328, 427n87; armed liberation struggles for decolonization and, 107; autonomy imperative and, 45, 385n34; black legend and, 112, 297; civil society coup in, 223–24; colonial legacy in, 11, 337; decolonization and, 11; development ranking for, 358, 360–61, 362, 432n55; institutional frames and, 116–17, 400nn87–88; integral state and, 58–59; internal wars and, 150; international system and, 135–36; Islamism and, 247; legal status in context of decolonization and, 105; management capacity of state and, 103, 105; military coups and rule in, 18, 140–41, 150, 151–52; monarchy’s disappearance and, 124, 127–28; Muslim Brotherhood and, 113, 400n88; nationalism and, 113, 309, 399n77; pan-Africanism and, 296–97; parastatalization and, 63; power transfer comparisons and, 97; representative institutions and, 394n15; security imperative and, 155, 190, 349; security services and, 176, 224; shari’a and, 41; social promotion and, 134; sovereignty and, 95; Suez Canal and, 58, 63, 97, 105, 141, 147–48, 150; Wafd party and, 97, 141
elections: electoral conflict management and, 211–17, 220–21, 335–36, 413n47, 413n50; electoral democracy and, 18, 145, 151; ethnicity and, 214–15, 250, 413n47; independence, 12, 115, 126, 128, 133, 143; military intervention and, 18, 145, 209–10. See also democracy; multiple party system; politics and political parties; single party system
Emerson, Rupert, 111–12, 309
Englebert, Pierre, 40, 74, 293, 304–5, 313, 334, 355
Enloe, Cynthia, 78, 149
entrepreneurship, 325, 341, 344
Equatorial Guinea: accumulation imperative and, 357; colonial legacy in, 118; decolonization as blocked and, 101; development ranking for, 358, 360–61, 361, 364; oil and, 81, 357, 364; personal rule and, 80–81, 151; territoriality and, 92
Eritrea: armed liberation struggles for decolonization and, 59, 107–9, 271, 415n9; border disputes and, 30, 233–34, 288; constitutionalism and, 58; democratization and, 28, 381n83; development ranking for, 358, 360–61; diaspora and, 59; independence for, 247; integral state and, 59; internal wars and, 30; legitimation imperative and, 155; liberation struggles during decolonization and, 232–34, 415n9; power transfer comparisons and, 395n28; territorial integrity and, 302; territorial possessiveness and, 233. See also specific groups and organizations
Eritrean People’s Liberation Front (EPLF), 59, 109, 233–34, 271
Ethiopia: Africa as concept and, 6; Afromarxism and, 331, 379n63; border disputes and, 30, 154, 233–34, 262–63, 288, 348; decolonization and independence for, 6, 395n25; development ranking for, 360–61; ethnonationalism and, 320, 331; federalism and, 331; foreign aid and, 233; integral state and, 23; internal wars and, 30; international system and, 135; liberation struggles postindependence and, 243, 244; Marxism-Leninism and, 60–61, 148; military coups and rule in, 145, 148, 150; monarchy and, 20, 124, 126–27, 243; nationalism and, 309; religion as identity system and, 219; security imperative and, 154–55, 190, 348, 349; territorial integrity and, 302
ethnicity: overview of, 31, 314–16; armed liberation struggles and, 113; complexity of ethnic consciousness and, 320–24; constructivism and, 316, 318–19, 425n57; cultural pluralism and, 316, 319–20, 333, 346; development and, 346; education system and, 325, 426n76; elections and, 214–15, 250, 413n47; ethnic security map and, 78, 149; ethnonationalism and, 303, 309, 320, 331, 332, 346; gender and, 326–27, 328; human rights abuses and, 272–73, 426n76; indigeneity and, 331–32; individual versus group behavior and, 328–31, 427n91; instrumentalism and, 316–18, 425n57; intensity levels of, 324–28, 427n80; internal wars and, 246–47, 248, 261–63, 265, 268, 270, 272–73, 278–80; military intervention and, 143–46; military rule and, 149; militias and, 248, 258–59, 261, 271–72, 284; others/the other and, 314, 320; primordialism and, 316; property rights and, 326–27; single party system and, 130–31, 138; sports and, 328; territorial nationalism and, 310, 312, 424n40; women and, 326–27. See also identity
ethnic violence (genocidal violence), 205–6, 220, 245
, 248, 275, 288, 319–20, 393n11
ethnonationalism, 303, 309, 313, 320, 325, 331, 332, 346, 425n45
Evans, Peter, 45
Ewe community, 322–23, 393n8, 402n25, 426n73
external sovereignty, 302–3
Eyadéma, Gnassingbé, 28, 150, 176, 199, 207
failed state. See state failure
Fanon, Frantz, 112–13
Farouk I (king of Egypt), 140–41, 400n87
Fatton, Robert, 45
federalism, 104, 116–17, 204, 241–42, 307, 331, 420n86
Fetter, Bruce, 57
Foltz, William, 166
Forces démocratiques pour la libération du Rwanda (FDLR), 277
foreign aid: autonomy imperative and, 190; democratization and, 64; integral state and, 161, 183–84; internal wars and, 245–46; military coups and, 146, 209; revenue imperative and, 156; security imperative and, 29, 349; state failure and, 170; state in context of conceptual debates and, 69. See also economics; SAPs (structural adjustment programs); structural adjustment programs (SAPs); and specific countries and states
foreign investments, 49–50, 60, 65–66, 357, 419n71
Forrest, Joshua, 159
Françafrique: autonomy imperative and, 154; democratization and, 26, 72; foreign aid and, 11–12, 136, 246; management capacity of state and, 104; military coups and, 146; pathways to independence and, 99; security imperative and, 349; state power and, 72
France: accumulation imperative and, 49; colonial state and, 396n5; decolonization and, 11–12, 96, 103, 104, 106, 377n21; economic prosperity during colonial period and, 13–14; federal government instruments and, 33, 307; foreign aid and, 11–12, 13–14, 136, 154, 246; institutional frames and, 115–16, 128; international system and, 136; legal status in context of decolonization and, 106; loi-cadre and, 11; management capacity of state and, 103, 104; military coups and intervention by, 143, 146; nationalism and, 307, 310; pathways to independence and, 99, 395n32; power transfer comparisons and, 97–98; security imperative and, 46, 129, 155, 191, 349; sovereignty and, 11, 13, 95, 394n20; state theory and, 33, 34; territoriality and, 90–91; timetables for decolonization and, 96; universal suffrage and, 93. See also specific states
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