by Kai-Fu Lee
But that leap to mobile payments wasn’t just a product of weak incumbents and independent consumer choices. Alibaba and Tencent accelerated the transition by forcing adoption through massive subsidies, a form of “going heavy” that makes American technology companies squirm.
In the early days of ride-hailing apps in China, riders could book through apps but often paid in cash. A large portion of cars on the leading Chinese platforms were traditional taxis driven by older men—people who weren’t in a rush to give up good old cash. So Tencent offered subsidies to both the rider and the driver if they used WeChat Wallet to pay. The rider paid less and the driver received more, with Tencent making up the difference for both sides.
The promotion was extremely costly—due to both legitimate rides and fraudulent ones designed to milk subsidies—but Tencent persisted. That decision paid off. The promotion built up user habits and lured onto the platform taxi drivers, who are the key nodes in the urban consumer economy.
By contrast, Apple Pay and Google Wallet have tread lightly in this arena. They theoretically offer greater convenience to users, but they haven’t been willing to bribe users into discovering that method for themselves. Reluctance on the part of U.S. tech giants is understandable: subsidies eat into quarterly revenue, and attempts to “buy users” are usually frowned on by Silicon Valley’s innovation purists.
But that American reluctance to go heavy has slowed adoption of mobile payments and will hurt these companies even more in a data-driven AI world. Data from mobile payments is currently generating the richest maps of consumer activity the world has ever known, far exceeding the data from traditional credit-card purchases or online activity captured by e-commerce players like Amazon or platforms like Google and Yelp. That mobile payment data will prove invaluable in building AI-driven companies in retail, real estate, and a range of other sectors.
BEIJING BICYCLE REDUX
While mobile payments totally transformed China’s financial landscape, shared bicycles transformed its urban landscapes. In many ways, the shared bike revolution was turning back the clock. From the time of the Communist Revolution in 1949 through the turn of the millennium, Chinese cities were teeming with bicycles. But as economic reforms created a new middle class, car ownership took off and riding a bicycle became something for individuals who were too poor for four-wheeled transport. Bikes were pushed to the margins of city streets and the cultural mainstream. One woman on the country’s most popular dating show captured the materialism of the moment when she rejected a poor suitor by saying, “I’d rather cry in the back of a BMW than smile on the back of a bicycle.”
And then, suddenly, China’s alternate universe reversed the tide. Beginning in late 2015, bike-sharing startups Mobike and ofo started supplying tens of millions of internet-connected bicycles and distributing them around major Chinese cities. Mobike outfitted its bikes with QR codes and internet-connected smart locks around the bike’s back wheel. When riders use the Mobike app (or its mini-app in WeChat Wallet) to scan a bike’s QR code, the lock on the back wheel automatically slides open. Mobike users ride the bike anywhere they want and leave it there for the next rider to find. Costs of a ride are based on distance and time, but heavy subsidies mean they often come in at 15 cents or less. It’s a revolutionary, real-world innovation, one made possible by mobile payments. Adding credit-card POS machines to bikes would be too expensive and repair-intensive, but frictionless mobile payments are both cheap to layer onto a bike and incredibly efficient.
Shared-bike use exploded. In the span of a year, the bikes went from urban oddities to total ubiquity, parked at every intersection, sitting outside every subway exit, and clustered around popular shops and restaurants. It rarely took more than a glance in either direction to find one, and five seconds in the app to unlock it. City streets turned into a rainbow of brightly colored bicycles: orange and silver for Mobike; bright yellow for ofo; and a smattering of blue, green, and red for other copycat companies. By the fall of 2017, Mobike was logging 22 million rides per day, almost all of them in China. That is four times the number of global rides Uber was giving each day in 2016, the last time it announced its totals. In the spring of 2018, Mobike was acquired by Wang Xing’s Meituan Dianping for $2.7 billion, just three years after the bike-sharing company’s founding.
Something new was emerging from all those rides: perhaps the world’s largest and most useful internet-of-things (IoT) networks. The IoT refers to collections of real-world, internet-connected devices that can convey data from the world around them to other devices in the network. Most Mobikes are equipped with solar-powered GPS, accelerators, Bluetooth, and near-field communications capabilities that can be activated by a smartphone. Together, those sensors generate twenty terabytes of data per day and feed it all back into Mobike’s cloud servers.
BLURRED LINES AND BRAVE NEW WORLDS
In the span of less than two years, China’s bike-sharing revolution has reshaped the country’s urban landscape and deeply enriched its data-scape. This shift forms a dramatic visual illustration of what China’s alternate internet universe does best: solving practical problems by blurring the lines between the online and offline worlds. It takes the core strength of the internet (information transmission) and leverages it in building businesses that reach out into the real world and directly touch on every corner of our lives.
Building this alternate universe didn’t happen overnight. It required market-driven entrepreneurs, mobile-first users, innovative super-apps, dense cities, cheap labor, mobile payments, and a government-sponsored culture shift. It’s been a messy, expensive, and disruptive process, but the payoff has been tremendous. China has built a roster of technology giants worth over a trillion dollars—a feat accomplished by no other country outside the United States.
But the greatest riches of this new Chinese tech world have yet to be realized. Like the long-buried organic matter that became fossil fuels powering the Industrial Revolution, the rich real-world interactions in China’s alternate internet universe are creating the massive data that will power its AI revolution. Each dimension of that universe—WeChat activity, O2O services, ride-hailing, mobile payments, and bike-sharing—adds a new layer to a data-scape that is unprecedented in its granular mapping of real-world consumption and transportation habits.
China’s O2O explosion gave its companies tremendous data on the offline lives of their users: the what, where, and when of their meals, massages, and day-to-day activities. Digital payments cracked open the black box of real-world consumer purchases, giving these companies a precise, real-time data map of consumer behavior. Peer-to-peer transactions added a new layer of social data atop those economic transactions. The country’s bike-sharing revolution has carpeted its cities in IoT transportation devices that color in the texture of urban life. They trace tens of millions of commutes, trips to the store, rides home, and first dates, dwarfing companies like Uber and Lyft in both quantity and granularity of data.
The numbers for these categories lay bare the China-U.S. gap in these key industries. Recent estimates have Chinese companies outstripping U.S. competitors ten to one in quantity of food deliveries and fifty to one in spending on mobile payments. China’s e-commerce purchases are roughly double the U.S. totals, and the gap is only growing. Data on total trips through ride-hailing apps is somewhat scarce, but during the height of competition between Uber and Didi, self-reported numbers from the two companies had Didi’s rides in China at four times the total of Uber’s global rides. When it comes to rides on shared bikes, China is outpacing the United States at an astounding ratio of three hundred to one.
That has already helped China’s juggernauts make up ground on their American counterparts in both revenue and market caps. In the age of AI implementation, the impact of these divergent data ecosystems will be far more profound. It will shape what industries AI startups will disrupt in each country and what intractable problems they will solve.
But building an AI-d
riven economy requires more than just gladiator entrepreneurs and abundant data. It also takes an army of trained AI engineers and a government eager to embrace the power of this transformative technology. These two factors—AI expertise and government support—are the final pieces of the AI puzzle. When put in place, they will complete our analysis of the competitive balance between the world’s two superpowers in the defining technology of the twenty-first century.
4
★
A Tale of Two Countries
Back in 1999, Chinese researchers were still in the dark when it came to studying artificial intelligence—literally. Allow me to explain.
That year, I visited the University of Science and Technology of China to give a lecture about our work on speech and image recognition at Microsoft Research. The university was one of the best engineering schools in the country, but it was located in the southern city of Hefei (pronounced “Huh-faye”), a remote backwater compared with Beijing.
On the night of the lecture, students crammed into the auditorium, and those who couldn’t get a ticket pressed up against the windows, hoping to catch some of the lecture through the glass. Interest was so intense that I eventually asked the organizers to allow students to fill up the aisles and even sit on the stage around me. They listened intently as I laid out the fundamentals of speech recognition, speech synthesis, 3-D graphics, and computer vision. They scribbled down notes and peppered me with questions about underlying principles and practical applications. China clearly lagged behind the United States by more than a decade in AI research, but these students were like sponges for any knowledge from the outside world. The excitement in the room was palpable.
The lecture ran long, and it was already dark as I left the auditorium and headed toward the university’s main gate. Student dorms lined both sides of the road, but the campus was still and the street was empty. And then, suddenly, it wasn’t. As if on cue, long lines of students began pouring out of the dormitories all around me and walking out into the street. I stood there baffled, watching what looked like a slow-motion fire drill, all of it conducted in total silence.
It wasn’t until they sat down on the curb and opened up their textbooks that I realized what was going on: the dormitories turned off all their lights at 11 p.m. sharp, and so most of the student body headed outside to continue their studies by streetlight. I looked on as hundreds of China’s brightest young engineering minds huddled in the soft yellow glow. I didn’t know it at the time, but the future founder of one of China’s most important AI companies was there, squeezing in an extra couple of hours of studying in the dark Hefei night.
Many of the textbooks these students read were outdated or poorly translated. But they were the best the students could get their hands on, and these young scholars were going to wring them for every drop of knowledge they contained. Internet access at the school was a scarce commodity, and studying abroad was possible only if the students earned a full scholarship. The dog-eared pages of these textbooks and the occasional lecture from a visiting scholar were the only window they had into the state of global AI research.
Oh, how things have changed.
THE STUFF OF AN AI SUPERPOWER
As I laid out earlier, creating an AI superpower for the twenty-first century requires four main building blocks: abundant data, tenacious entrepreneurs, well-trained AI scientists, and a supportive policy environment. We’ve already seen how China’s gladiatorial startup ecosystem trained a generation of the world’s most street-smart entrepreneurs, and how China’s alternate internet universe created the world’s richest data ecosystem.
This chapter assesses the balance of power in the two remaining ingredients—AI expertise and government support. I believe that in the age of AI implementation, Silicon Valley’s edge in elite expertise isn’t all it’s cracked up to be. And in the crucial realm of government support, China’s techno-utilitarian political culture will pave the way for faster deployment of game-changing technologies.
As artificial intelligence filters into the broader economy, this era will reward the quantity of solid AI engineers over the quality of elite researchers. Real economic strength in the age of AI implementation won’t come just from a handful of elite scientists who push the boundaries of research. It will come from an army of well-trained engineers who team up with entrepreneurs to turn those discoveries into game-changing companies.
China is training just such an army. In the two decades since my lecture in Hefei, China’s artificial intelligence community has largely closed the gap with the United States. While America still dominates when it comes to superstar researchers, Chinese companies and research institutions have filled their ranks with the kind of well-trained engineers that can power this era of AI deployment. It has done that by marrying the extraordinary hunger for knowledge that I witnessed in Hefei with an explosion in access to cutting-edge global research. Chinese students of AI are no longer straining in the dark to read outdated textbooks. They’re taking advantage of AI’s open research culture to absorb knowledge straight from the source and in real time. That means dissecting the latest online academic publications, debating the approaches of top AI scientists in WeChat groups, and streaming their lectures on smartphones.
This rich connectivity allows China’s AI community to play intellectual catch-up at the elite level, training a generation of hungry Chinese researchers who now contribute to the field at a high level. It also empowers Chinese startups to apply cutting-edge, open source algorithms to practical AI products: autonomous drones, pay-with-your-face systems, and intelligent home appliances.
Those startups are now scrapping for a slice of an AI landscape increasingly dominated by a handful of major players: the so-called Seven Giants of the AI age, which include Google, Facebook, Amazon, Microsoft, Baidu, Alibaba, and Tencent. These corporate juggernauts are almost evenly split between the United States and China, and they’re making bold plays to dominate the AI economy. They’re using billions of dollars in cash and dizzying stockpiles of data to gobble up available AI talent. They’re also working to construct the “power grids” for the AI age: privately controlled computing networks that distribute machine learning across the economy, with the corporate giants acting as “utilities.” It’s a worrisome phenomenon for those who value an open AI ecosystem and also poses a potential stumbling block to China’s rise as an AI superpower.
But bringing AI’s power to bear on the broader economy can’t be done by private companies alone—it requires an accommodating policy environment and can be accelerated by direct government support. As you recall, soon after Ke Jie’s loss to AlphaGo, the Chinese central government released a sweeping blueprint for Chinese leadership in AI. Like the “mass innovation and mass entrepreneurship” campaign, China’s AI plan is turbocharging growth through a flood of new funding, including subsidies for AI startups and generous government contracts to accelerate adoption.
The plan has also shifted incentives for policy innovation around AI. Ambitious mayors across China are scrambling to turn their cities into showcases for new AI applications. They’re plotting driverless trucking routes, installing facial recognition systems on public transportation, and hooking traffic grids into “city brains” that optimize flows.
Behind these efforts lies a core difference in American and Chinese political culture: while America’s combative political system aggressively punishes missteps or waste in funding technological upgrades, China’s techno-utilitarian approach rewards proactive investment and adoption. Neither system can claim objective moral superiority, and the United States’ long track record of both personal freedom and technological achievement is unparalleled in the modern era. But I believe that in the age of AI implementation the Chinese approach will have the impact of accelerating deployment, generating more data, and planting the seeds of further growth. It’s a self-perpetuating cycle, one that runs on a peculiar alchemy of digital data, entrepreneurial grit, hard-earned expertise, an
d political will. To see where the two AI superpowers stand, we must first understand the source of that expertise.
NOBEL WINNERS AND NO-NAME TINKERERS
When Enrico Fermi stepped onto the deck of the RMS Franconia II in 1938, he changed the global balance of power. Fermi had just received the Nobel Prize in physics in Stockholm, but instead of returning home to Benito Mussolini’s Italy, Fermi and his family sailed for New York. They made the journey to escape Italy’s racial laws, which barred Jews or Africans from holding many jobs or marrying Italians. Fermi’s wife, Laura, was Jewish, and he decided to move the family halfway across the world rather than live under the antisemitism that was sweeping Europe.
It was a personal decision with earthshaking consequences. After arriving in the United States, Fermi learned of the discovery of nuclear fission by scientists in Nazi Germany and quickly set to work exploring the phenomenon. He created the world’s first self-sustaining nuclear reaction underneath a set of bleachers at the University of Chicago and played an indispensable role in the Manhattan Project. This top-secret project was the largest industrial undertaking the world had ever seen, and it culminated in the development of the world’s first nuclear weapons for the U.S. military. Those bombs put an end to World War II in the Pacific and laid the groundwork for the nuclear world order.
Fermi and the Manhattan Project embodied an age of discovery that rewarded quality over quantity in expertise. In nuclear physics, the 1930s and 1940s were an age of fundamental breakthroughs, and when it came to making those breakthroughs, one Enrico Fermi was worth thousands of less brilliant physicists. American leadership in this era was built in large part on attracting geniuses like Fermi: men and women who could singlehandedly tip the scales of scientific power.