40. All direct quotes are from David Grene’s 1987 University of Chicago Press translation. I have also drawn on material from the introductions to other translations by A. R. Burn and Tom Griffith.
41. Boris Pasternak, Doctor Zhivago, translated by Max Hayward and Manya Harari (New York: Pantheon, 1958), p. 43.
42. Robert D. Kaplan, “A Historian for Our Time,” The Atlantic, January/Februrary 2007.
43. Hodgson, The Classical Age of Islam, p. 25.
Chapter IV: The Eurasian Map
1. Jakub J. Grygiel, Great Powers and Geopolitical Change (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2006), pp. 2, 24; Mackubin Thomas Owens, “In Defense of Classical Geopolitics,” Naval War College Review, Newport, Rhode Island, Autumn 1999, pp. 60, 73; Saul B. Cohen, Geography and Politics in a World Divided (New York: Random House, 1963), p. 29.
2. Paul Kennedy, “The Pivot of History: The U.S. Needs to Blend Democratic Ideals with Geopolitical Wisdom,” The Guardian, June 19, 2004; Cohen, Geography and Politics in a World Divided, p. xiii.
3. Zbigniew Brzezinski, The Grand Chessboard: American Primacy and Its Geostrategic Imperatives (New York: Basic Books, 1997), p. 37.
4. Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, revised by Kenneth W. Thompson and W. David Clinton (New York: McGraw Hill, 1948), pp. 170–71.
5. Halford J. Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality: A Study in Politics of Reconstruction (Washington, DC: National Defense University, 1919, 1942), p. 205; W. H. Parker, Mackinder: Geography as an Aid to Statecraft (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), pp. 211–12.
6. Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality, p. 155.
7. H. J. Mackinder, “On the Necessity of Thorough Teaching in General Geography as a Preliminary to the Teaching of Commercial Geography,” Journal of the Manchester Geographical Society, 1890, vol. 6; Parker, Mackinder, pp. 95–96.
8. H. J. Mackinder, “The Geographical Pivot of History,” The Geographical Journal, London, April 1904, p. 422.
9. Ibid., p. 421.
10. Ibid., p. 422.
11. Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality, p. 72; James Fairgrieve, Geography and World Power, p. 103.
12. The United States would know a similar fate, as World War II left it virtually unscathed, even as the infrastructures of Europe, the Soviet Union, China, and Japan were laid waste, granting America decades of economic and political preeminence.
13. Toynbee, A Study of History, abridgement of vols. 7–10 by D. C. Somervell (New York: Oxford University Press, 1946), pp. 151, 168.
14. Geoffrey Sloan, “Sir Halford J. Mackinder: The Heartland Theory Then and Now,” in Geopolitics, Geography and Strategy, edited by Colin S. Gray and Geoffrey Sloan (London: Frank Cass, 1999), p. 19.
15. Kennedy, “The Pivot of History: The U.S. Needs to Blend Democratic Ideals with Geopolitical Wisdom.”
16. Parker, Mackinder, p. 154.
17. Gerry Kearns, Geopolitics and Empire: The Legacy of Halford Mackinder (New York: Oxford University Press, 2009), p. 38.
18. Parker, Mackinder, p. 121.
19. Daniel J. Mahoney, “Three Decent Frenchmen,” The National Interest, Washington, Summer 1999; Franciszek Draus, History, Truth and Liberty: Selected Writings of Raymond Aron (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985).
20. Grygiel, Great Powers and Geopolitical Change, p. 181; Raymond Aron, Peace and War: A Theory of International Relations (Garden City: Doubleday, 1966), pp. 197–98.
21. Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality, p. 2.
22. Ibid., p. 1.
23. Parker, Mackinder, p. 160.
24. Ibid., p. 163.
25. Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality, pp. 24–25, 28, 32; Parker, Mackinder, 122–23; Fairgrieve, Geography and World Power, pp. 60–62.
26. Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality, pp. 22, 38, 41, 46.
27. Ibid., pp. 46, 48.
28. Brzezinski, The Grand Chessboard, p. 31.
29. Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality, pp. 41–42, 47.
30. Ibid., p. xviii, from introduction by Stephen V. Mladineo.
31. Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality, pp. 95–99, 111–12, 115; Cohen, Geography and Politics in a World Divided, pp. 85–86; James Fairgrieve, Geography and World Power (London: University of London Press, 1915).
32. Sloan, “Sir Halford J. Mackinder: The Heartland Theory Then and Now,” p. 31.
33. Arthur Butler Dugan, “Mackinder and His Critics Reconsidered,” The Journal of Politics, May 1962.
34. Brian W. Blouet, Halford Mackinder: A Biography (College Station: Texas A & M Press, 1987), pp. 150–51.
35. Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality, pp. 55, 78; Cohen, Geography and Politics in a World Divided, pp. 42–44.
36. Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality, pp. 64–65.
37. Ibid., p. 116.
38. Ibid., pp. 74, 205.
39. Ibid., p. 201.
Chapter V: The Nazi Distortion
1. Robert Strausz-Hupé, Geopolitics: The Struggle for Space and Power (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1942), pp. 48–53; Parker, Mackinder: Geography as an Aid to Statecraft (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), pp. 178–80.
2. Strausz-Hupé, Geopolitics, pp. 59–60.
3. Ibid., pp. 60–61, 68–69.
4. Ibid., pp. 142, 154–55.
5. Ibid., pp. 85, 101, 140, 197, 220.
6. Holger H. Herwig, “Geopolitik: Haushofer, Hitler and Lebensraum,” in Geopolitics: Geography and Strategy, edited by Colin S. Gray and Geoffrey Sloan (London: Frank Cass, 1999), p. 233.
7. Brian W. Blouet, Halford Mackinder: A Biography (College Station: Texas A & M Press, 1987), pp. 190–91.
8. Strausz-Hupé, Geopolitics, p. 264.
9. Ibid., p. 191.
10. Ibid., pp. 196, 218.
11. Paul Bracken, Fire in the East: The Rise of Asian Military Power and the Second Nuclear Age (New York: HarperCollins, 1999), p. 30.
Chapter VI: The Rimland Thesis
1. Brian W. Blouet, Halford Mackinder: A Biography (College Station: Texas A & M Press, 1987), p. 192.
2. Nicholas J. Spykman, “Geography and Foreign Policy I,” The American Political Science Review, Los Angeles, February 1938; Francis P. Sempa, “The Geopolitical Realism of Nicholas Spykman,” introduction to Nicholas J. Spykman, America’s Strategy in World Politics (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 2007).
3. Nicholas J. Spykman, America’s Strategy in World Politics: The United States and the Balance of Power (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1942), pp. xvii, xviii, 7, 18, 20–21, 2008 Transaction edition.
4. Ibid., pp. 42, 91; Robert Strausz-Hupé, Geopolitics: The Struggle for Space and Power (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1942), p. 169; Halford J. Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality: A Study in the Politics of Reconstruction (Washington, DC: National Defense University, 1919, 1942), p. 202; Daniel J. Boorstin, Hidden History: Exploring Our Secret Past (New York: Vintage, 1987, 1989), p. 246; James Fairgrieve, Geography and World Power, pp. 18–19, 326–27.
5. Spykman, America’s Strategy in World Politics, p. 89.
6. Ibid., pp. 49–50, 60.
7. Ibid., p. 50.
8. Ibid., pp. 197, 407.
9. Ibid., p. 182.
10. Nicholas John Spykman, The Geography of the Peace, edited by Helen R. Nicholl (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1944), p. 43.
11. Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality, p. 51.
12. W. H. Parker, Mackinder: Geography as an Aid to Statecraft (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), p. 195.
13. Henry A. Kissinger, Nuclear Weapons and Foreign Policy (New York: Doubleday, 1957), pp. 125, 127.
14. Spykman, America’s Strategy in World Politics, pp. 135–37, 460, 469.
15. Ibid., p. 466.
16. Michael P. Gerace, “Between Mackinder and Spykman: Geopolitics, Containment, and After,” Comparative Strategy, University of Reading, UK, 1991.
17. Spykman, America’s
Strategy in World Politics, p. 165.
18. Ibid., p. 166.
19. Ibid., p. 178; Albert Wohlstetter, “Illusions of Distance,” Foreign Affairs, New York, January 1968.
20. Parker, Mackinder, p. 186.
21. Geoffrey Kemp and Robert E. Harkavy, Strategic Geography and the Changing Middle East (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press, 1997), p. 5.
Chapter VII: The Allure of Sea Power
1. A. T. Mahan, The Problem of Asia: And Its Effect Upon International Policies (London: Sampson Low, Marston, 1900), pp. 27–28, 42–44, 97, 161; Cohen, Geography and Politics in a World Divided (New York: Random House, 1963), pp. 48–49.
2. Robert Strausz-Hupé, Geopolitics: The Struggle for Space and Power (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1942), pp. 253–54.
3. A. T. Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, 1660–1783 (Boston: Little, Brown, 1890), pp. 225–26, 1987 Dover edition.
4. Strausz-Hupé, Geopolitics, pp. 244–45.
5. Jon Sumida, “Alfred Thayer Mahan, Geopolitician,” in Geopolitics, Geography and Strategy, edited by Colin S. Gray and Geoffrey Sloan (London: Frank Cass, 1999), pp. 53, 55, 59; Jon Sumida, Inventing Grand Strategy and Teaching Command: The Classic Works of Alfred Thayer Mahan (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997), pp. 41, 84.
6. Mahan, The Influence of Sea Power Upon History, p. 25.
7. Ibid., pp. iii, 8, 26–27, 50–52, 67.
8. Ibid., pp. iv–vi, 15, 20–21, 329.
9. Ibid., pp. 29, 138.
10. Ibid., pp. 29, 31, 33–34, 138; Eric Grove, The Future of Sea Power (Annapolis: Naval Institute Press, 1990), pp. 224–25.
11. Norman Angell, The Great Illusion (New York: Cosimo Classics, 1909, 2007), pp. 310–11.
12. James R. Holmes and Toshi Yoshihara, Chinese Naval Strategy in the 21st Century: The Turn to Mahan (New York: Routledge, 2008), p. 39.
13. Julian S. Corbett, Principles of Maritime Strategy (London: Longmans, Green and Co., 1911), pp. 87, 152–53, 213–14, 2004 Dover edition.
14. U.S. Navy, U.S. Marine Corps, U.S. Coast Guard, “A Cooperative Strategy for 21st Century Seapower,” Washington, DC, and Newport, Rhode Island, October 2007.
15. John J. Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power Politics (New York: W. W. Norton, 2001), pp. 210, 213, 365.
Chapter VIII: The “Crisis of Room”
1. Paul Bracken, Fire in the East: The Rise of Asian Military Power and the Second Nuclear Age (New York: HarperCollins, 1999), pp. 33–34.
2. Ibid., pp. xxv–xxvii, 73.
3. Ibid., pp. 2, 10, 22, 24–25.
4. Ibid., pp. 26–31.
5. Ibid., pp. 37–38.
6. Ibid., pp. 42, 45, 47–49, 63, 97, 113.
7. Ibid., p. 156.
8. Ibid., p. 110.
9. Ibn Khaldun, The Muqaddimah: An Introduction to History (1377), translated by Franz Rosenthal, pp. 93, 109, 133, 136, 140, 1967 Princeton University Press edition.
10. R. W. Southern, The Making of the Middle Ages (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953), pp. 12–13.
11. George Orwell, 1984 (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1949), p. 124.
12. Thomas Pynchon, foreword to George Orwell, 1984 (New York: Penguin, 2003).
13. Oswald Spengler, The Decline of the West, translated by Charles Francis Atkinson (New York: Vintage, 1922, 2006), p. 395.
14. Bracken, Fire in the East, pp. 123–24.
15. Ibid., pp. 89, 91.
16. Jakub Grygiel, “The Power of Statelessness: The Withering Appeal of Governing,” Policy Review, Washington, April–May 2009.
17. Randall L. Schweller, “Ennui Becomes Us,” The National Interest, Washington, DC, December 16, 2009.
PART II: THE EARLY-TWENTY-FIRST-CENTURY MAP
Chapter IX: The Geography of European Divisions
1. Saul B. Cohen, Geography and Politics in a World Divided (New York: Random House, 1963), p. 157.
2. William Anthony Hay, “Geopolitics of Europe,” Orbis, Philadelphia, Spring 2003.
3. Claudio Magris, Danube (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1988, 1989), p. 18.
4. Barry Cunliffe, Europe Between the Oceans: Themes and Variations: 9000 BC–AD 1000 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), pp. vii, 31, 38, 40, 60, 318, 477.
5. Tony Judt, “Europe: The Grand Illusion,” New York Review of Books, July 11, 1996.
6. Cunliffe, Europe Between the Oceans, p. 372.
7. Hay, “Geopolitics of Europe.”
8. Peter Brown, The World of Late Antiquity: AD 150–750 (London: Thames & Hudson, 1971), pp. 11, 13, 20.
9. Henri Pirenne, Mohammed and Charlemagne (ACLS Humanities e-book 1939, 2008).
10. Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean: And the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, translated by Sian Reynolds (New York: Harper & Row, 1949), p. 75.
11. Cunliffe, Europe Between the Oceans, pp. 42–43.
12. Robert D. Kaplan, Eastward to Tartary: Travels in the Balkans, the Middle East, and the Caucasus (New York: Random House, 2000), p. 5.
13. Philomila Tsoukala, “A Family Portrait of a Greek Tragedy,” New York Times, April 24, 2010.
14. Judt, “Europe: The Grand Illusion.”
15. Jack A. Goldstone, “The New Population Bomb: The Four Mega-trends That Will Change the World,” Foreign Affairs, New York, January–February 2010.
16. Hay, “Geopolitics of Europe.”
17. Judt, “Europe: The Grand Illusion.”
18. Zbigniew Brzezinski, The Grand Chessboard: American Primacy and Its Geostrategic Imperatives (New York: Basic Books, 1997), pp. 69–71.
19. Colin S. Gray, Another Bloody Century: Future Warfare (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2005), p. 37.
20. Josef Joffe in conversation, Madrid, May 5, 2011, Conference of the Fundación para el Análisis y los Estudios Sociales.
21. Geoffrey Sloan, “Sir Halford Mackinder: The Heartland Theory Then and Now,” in Geopolitics: Geography and Strategy, edited by Colin S. Gray and Geoffrey Sloan (London: Frank Cass, 1999), p. 20.
22. Steve LeVine, “Pipeline Politics Redux,” Foreign Policy, Washington, DC, June 10, 2010; “BP Global Statistical Review of World Energy,” June 2010.
23. Hay, “Geopolitics of Europe.”
24. Halford J. Mackinder, Democratic Ideals and Reality: A Study in the Politics of Reconstruction (Washington, DC: National Defense University, 1919, 1942), p. 116.
Chapter X: Russia and the Independent Heartland
1. Alexander Solzhenitsyn, August 1914, translated by Michael Glenny (New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 1971, 1972), p. 3.
2. Saul B. Cohen, Geography and Politics in a World Divided (New York: Random House, 1963), p. 211.
3. G. Patrick March, Eastern Destiny: Russia in Asia and the North Pacific (Westport, CT: Praeger, 1996), p. 1.
4. Philip Longworth, Russia: The Once and Future Empire from Pre-History to Putin (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2005), pp. 16–17.
5. March, Eastern Destiny, pp. 4–5; W. Bruce Lincoln, The Conquest of a Continent: Siberia and the Russians (New York: Random House, 1994), p. xx, 2007 Cornell University Press edition.
6. A Tatar is a Turkic-speaking Sunni Muslim of which there were many in the Mongol armies, leading to the name being used interchangeably with Mongol.
7. March, Eastern Destiny, p. 18.
8. James H. Billington, The Icon and the Axe: An Interpretive History of Russian Culture (New York: Knopf, 1966), p. 11.
9. Ibid., pp. 18–19, 26.
10. Longworth, Russia, p. 1.
11. Lincoln, The Conquest of a Continent, p. 19.
12. Longworth, Russia, pp. 48, 52–53.
13. Robert Strausz-Hupé, The Zone of Indifference (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1952), p. 88.
14. Longworth, Russia, pp. 94–95; March, Eastern Destiny, p. 28.
15. Robert D. Kaplan, introduction to Taras Bulba, translated by Peter Constantine (New York: Modern Library, 2003).
16. Alexan
der Herzen, My Past and Thoughts, translated by Constance Garnett (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1968, 1982), p. 97.
17. Longworth, Russia, p. 200.
18. Denis J. B. Shaw, Russia in the Modern World: A New Geography (Oxford: Blackwell, 1999), pp. 230–32.
19. Ibid., pp. 5, 7; D. W. Meinig, “The Macrogeography of Western Imperialism,” in Settlement and Encounter, edited by F. H. Gale and G. H. Lawson (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1968), pp. 213–40.
20. Lincoln, The Conquest of a Continent, p. xix.
21. Longworth, Russia, p. 322.
22. Colin Thubron, In Siberia (New York: HarperCollins, 1999), pp. 99, 122.
23. Lincoln, The Conquest of a Continent, p. 57.
24. Ibid., pp. 89, 395.
25. There is, too, the question of a warming Arctic, which would unblock the ice-bound White, Barents, Kara, Laptev, and East Siberian seas, to which all of Siberia’s mighty rivers flow, unleashing the region’s economic potential.
26. March, Eastern Destiny, pp. 51, 130.
27. Simon Saradzhyan, “Russia’s Red Herring,” ISN Security Watch, Zurich, May 25, 2010.
28. March, Eastern Destiny, p. 194.
29. Shaw, Russia in the Modern World, p. 31.
30. Soviet maps of Europe henceforth included all of European Russia, a cartographic device which ensured that Moscow was not viewed as an outsider. It also made Eastern European states appear more central, with Soviet republics like Ukraine and Moldova becoming, in effect, the new Eastern Europe. Jeremy Black, Maps and History: Constructing Images of the Past (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2009), p. 151.
31. Shaw, Russia in the Modern World, pp. 22–23.
32. March, Eastern Destiny, pp. 237–38.
33. Saradzhyan, “Russia’s Red Herring.”
34. Zbigniew Brzezinski, The Grand Chessboard: American Primacy and Its Geostrategic Imperative (New York: Basic Books, 1997), p. 98.
35. John Erickson, “ ‘Russia Will Not Be Trifled With’: Geopolitical Facts and Fantasies,” in Geopolitics, Geography and Strategy, edited by Colin S. Gray and Geoffrey Sloan (London: Frank Cass, 1999), pp. 242–43, 262.
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