• Shutting down mobile and permanent blood collection operations in neighborhoods known to have higher numbers of injecting drug users and gay men. Some blood banks—notably those in San Francisco—took such steps as early as mid-1983; most worldwide did not. See H. A. Perkins, “Safety of the Blood Supply,†Journal of Clinical Apheresis 8 (1993): 110–16.
• Use only female-donated blood in pooled samples destined to be used for Factors VIII or IX. In 1983 over 90 percent of all AIDS cases in Europe and North America were male. and though that gender disparity would narrow over the years, the odds of infection among women were dramatically less than among men during the early 1980s.
• Verbally counsel all donors about the risks of contaminating the blood supply. Request that those who may be in a “risk group†for AIDS exclude themselves from donating blood.
• Actively lobby surgeons, with the aim of decreasing both unnecessary surgery and the amounts of blood used during necessary procedures.
• Heat the donated blood. Heat treatment of Factor products, already routine for albumin, would be proven effective for Factor VIII by Jay Levy in mid-1984. Only Cutter Laboratories, which sponsored Levy’s study, would then begin sterilization. Most products would not be so treated until mid-1985.
54 At that time HTLV-I was simply called HTLV, because the discovery of HTLV-II hadn’t yet been announced. To avoid confusion, however, the author will refer to the various HTLVs in their numbered forms.
55 M. Essex, “Adult T-Cell Leukemia-Lymphoma: Role of a Human Retrovirus,†Journal of the National Cancer Institute 69 (1982): 981–85.
56 J. J. Goedert, W. C. Wallen, D. L. Mann, et al., “Amyl Nitrite May Alter T Lymphocytes in Homosexual Men.†Lancet I (1982): 412–15. See also, for speculation on “poppers,†I. Gorin, O. Picard, L. LaRoche, et al., “Kaposi’s Sarcoma Without the U.S. or ‘Popper’ Connection,†Lancet I (1982): 908; G. R. Seage, K. H. Mayer, C. R. Horsburgh, et al., “The Relation Between Nitrite Inhalants, Unprotected Receptive Anal Intercourse, and the Risk of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection,†American Journal of Epidemiology 135 (1992): 1–11; Letters to the Editor (several authors), “Re: An Autopsy of Epidemiologic Methods: The Case of ‘Poppers’ in the Early Epidemic of the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS),†American Journal of Epidemiology 131 (1990): 195–200; K. A. Jørgensen, “Amyl Nitrite and Kaposi’s Sarcoma in Homosexual Men,†Lancet 307 (1982): 893–94; and R. O. Brennan and D. T. Durack, “Gay Compromise Syndrome,†Lancet II (1981): 1338–39.
57 “‘Highly Abnormal’ B-Cell Function Found in AIDS,†Hospital Practice, October 1983: 32–40; and H. C. Lane, H. Masur, A. H. Rook, et al., “Abnormalities of B Lymphocyte Activation and Immunoregulation in Patients with the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome,†New England Journal of Medicine 309 (1983): 453.
58 Letter to the Honorable Margaret Heckler, May 19, 1983, signed by Donald Abrams, Jay Levy, W. J. W. Morrow, Conrad Casavant, Andrew Moss, Marcus Conant, William Drew, Daniel Stites, Paul Volberding, John Ziegler, and John Greenspan, all of the University of California at San Francisco.
59 Robert S. Walker (Pennsylvania), Frank Horton (New York), John N. Ehlenborn (Illinois), Lyle Williams (Ohio), William F. Clinger, Jr. (Pennsylvania), Judd Gregg (New Hampshire), Dan Burton (Indiana), Alfred A. McCandless (California), Larry Craig (Idaho), and Dan Schaefer (Colorado).
60 Groupe de Travail Français sur le SIDA, “Le Syndrome d‘Immuno-déficit Acquis,†La Presse Médicale 12 (1983): 2453–56.
61 Centers for Disease Control, “Experimental Infection of Chimpanzees with Lymphadenopathy-Associated Virus,†Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 33 (1984): 442–44. By the time the CDC finally mustered the resources for animal research, the Pasteur Institute’s research team had already identified the presence of a retrovirus in AIDS patients, which they dubbed lymphadenopathy-associated virus, or LAV. Therefore, the CDC actually injected viral inoculum into the test animals. The virus did enter the animals’ cells, and reproduced, but no symptomatic disease had been produced by August 1984.
62 J. Gerstoft, A. Malchow-Møller, I. Bygbjerg, et al., “Severe Acquired Immunodeficiency in European Homosexual Men,†British Medical Journal 235 (1982): 17–19.
63 Gorin, Picard, LaRoche, et al. (1982), op. cit.
64 Groupe de Travail Francais sur le SIDA. “Sarcome de Kaposi et Infections Opportunistes chez des Subjets Jeunes sans Antecedent Susceptible d’Entrainer une Immuno-dépression,†La Presse Médicale 12 (1983): 2431–34. Other cases with which Liebowitch was familiar are described in J. B. Brunet, E. Bouvet. J. Liebowitch, et al., “Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome in France,†Lancet I (1983): 700–01.
65 N. Clumeck, F. Mascaret-Lemone, J. deMaubeuge, et al., “Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome in Black Africans,†Lancet I (1983): 642.
66 R. M. DuBois, J. R. Mikhail, and J. C. Batten, “Primary Pneumocystis carinii and Cytomegalovirus Infections,†Lancet II (1981): 1339; J. L‘Age-Stehr, R. Kunze, and M. A. Koch, “AIDS in West Germany,†Lancet II (1983): 1370–71; G. Rezza, G. Ippolito, G. Marasca, and D. Greco, “AIDS in Italy,†Lancet II (1984): 642; W. Rozenbaum, D. Klatzmann, C. Mayaud, et al., “Syndrome d’Immunodépression Acquire chez 4 Homosexuals,†La Presse Médicale 12 (1983): 1149–54; O. Tello, “AIDS in Spain,†Lancet II (1984): 1472; and H. K. Thomsen, M. Jacobsen. and A. Malchow-Møller, “Kaposi Sarcoma Among Homosexual Men in Europe,†Lancet II (1981): 688.
67 Working in the lab with Montagnier were Françoise Barré-Sinoussi, Jean-Claude Chermann, David Klatzmann, Jean-Claude Gluckman, Marc Alizon, Simon Wain-Hobson, Pierre Sonige, and Christine Rouzioux.
68 The history of the discovery of the human immunodeficiency virus, or HIV-1, is mired in extraordinary controversy that still, in the 1990s, defies absolutely objective reporting. Indeed, the longer the disputed history has been debated in the popular press, scientific journals, halls of Congress and Assemble, U.S. patent courts, inside the NIH and Pasteur Institute, the more difficult it has become to separate myth from fact, personality from genuine achievement, nationalism from legitimate scientific competition, and politics from science.
For the purpose of this book it is not necessary to reinterpret the history of the discovery of HIV-1 and the Franco-American dispute in detail; nor is it germane to the overarching issues of disease emergence.
Nevertheless, curious readers anxious to reach their own conclusions about who discovered HIV-1, and how damaging the scientific duel may have been to the overall AIDS research efforts, are directed to the following:
• M. Chase, “French Scientists Sue U.S. on AIDS Research Royalties,†Wall Street Journal, December 16, 1985: Al.
• Connor and Kingman (1988), op. cit., Chapters 3 and 4.
• J. Crewdson, “The Great AIDS Quest,†Chicago Tribune, November 19, 1989: Al.
• F. J. Dyson, “Science in Trouble,†American Scholar 62 (1993): 513–25.
• A. G. Fettner, Viruses: Agents of Change, Part III (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1990).
• Gallo, Virus Hunting (1991), op. cit., Part III.
• R. C. Gallo, G. M. Shaw, and P. D. Markham, “The Etiology of AIDS,†Chapter 2 in V. T. DeVita, S. Hellman, and S. A. Rosenberg, eds., AIDS: Etiology, Diagnosis, Treatment and Prevention (New York: J. B. Lippincott, 1985).
• M. D. Grmek (1990), op. cit., Chapters 6 and 7.
• Groupe de Travail Français sur le SIDA, “Le Syndrome d‘Immuno-déficit Acquis: Une Nouvelle Maladie d’Origine Infectieuse?†La Presse Médicale 12 (1983): 2453–56.
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• C. Marwick, “French, U.S. Viral Isolates Compared in Search for Cause of AIDS,†Journal of the American Medical Association 251 (1984): 2901–9.
• J. Palca, “Hints Emerge from the Gallo Probe,†Science 253 (1991): 728–31.
• D. Remnick, “Robert Gallo Goes to War,†Washington Post, August 9, 1987: 11, 43.
• Research Integrity Adjudications Panel, Docket No. A-93-100. Decision No. 1446, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1993.
• “Settling the AIDS Virus Dispute†and “The Chronology of AIDS Research,†both in Nature 326 (1987): 425–26 and 435–36.
• B. Seytre, “British Say Pasteur Institute Slighted Their Help on AIDS Test,†Nature 358 (1992): 358.
• R. Shilts (1987), op. cit.
• “The One True Virus,†The Economist, June 8, 1991: 83–84.
• B. Werth, “By AIDS Obsessed,†GQ Magazine, August 1991: 144–208.
69 Working on the effort in 1982–85 in the Gallo lab at the National Cancer Institute were Flossie Wong-Stahl, M. G. Sarngadharan, S. Zaki Salahuddin, Mikulas Popovic, Beatrice Hahn, George Shaw, Howard Streicher, and Genoveffa Franchini.
70 J. Maurice, “Human ‘T’ Leukemia Virus Still Suspected in AIDS,†Journal of the American Medical Association 250 (1983): 1015–21.
71 Jay Levy’s laboratory group included Anthony Hoffman, Susan Kramer, Jill Landis, Joni Shimabukuro, and Lyndon Oshiro.
72 J. A. Levy and J. S. Ziegler, “Acquired Immunodeficiency and Kaposi’s Sarcoma Results from Secondary Immune Stimulant,†Lancet II (1983): 78–81.
73 R. T. Ravenholt, “Role of Hepatitis B Virus in Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome,†Lancet II (1983): 885–86.
74 M. H. Poleski, “Kaposi’s Sarcoma and Hepatitis B Vaccine,†Annals of Internal Medicine 97 (1982): 5; M. I. McDonald, J. D. Hamilton, and D. T. Duract, “Hepatitis B Surface Antigen Could Harbour the Infective Agent of AIDS,†Lancet II (1983): 882–84; letters from various authors, New England Journal of Medicine 312 (1985): 375–76; H. S. Sacks, D. N. Rose, and T. C. Chalmers, “Should the Risk of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Deter Hepatitis B Vaccination?†Journal of the American Medical Association 252 (1984): 3375–77; and Centers for Disease Control, “Hepatitis B Vaccine: Evidence Confirming Lack of AIDS Transmission,†Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 33 (1984): 685–87.
75 H. L. Coulter, AIDS and Syphilis: The Hidden Link (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1987).
76 H. H. Neumann, “Use of Steroid Creams as a Possible Cause of Immunosuppression in Homosexuals,†New England Journal of Medicine 306 (1982): 935.
77 P. N. Goldwater, B. J. L. Synek, T. D. Koelmeyer, and P. J. Scott, “Scrapie-Associated Fibrils and AIDS Encephalopathy,†Lancet II (1985): 1300.
78 J. Teas, “Could AIDS Agent Be a New Variant of African Swine Fever Virus?†Lancet I (1983): 922–23; and J. Beldekas. J. Teas, and J. R. Hebert, “African Swine Fever and AIDS,†Lancet I (1986): 564–65.
79 For an excellent analysis of these and other theories on the origin and cause of AIDS, see R. Sabatier, Blaming Others: Prejudice, Race and Worldwide AIDS (London: Panos Institute, 1988).
80 R. J. Ablin and M. J. Gonder, “Possible Immunosuppressive Factors in Blood Products,†Annals of Internal Medicine 100 (1984): 155–56.
81 T. J. Greenwalt, “Blood-Products Transfusion and the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome,†Annals of Internal Medicine 100 (1984): 155.
82 A. J. Amman, D. W. Wara, S. Dritz, et al., “Acquired Immunodeficiency in an Infant: Possible Transmission by Means of Blood Products,†Lancet I (1983): 956–58; G. Angarano, G. Pastore, L. Monno, et al., “Rapid Spread of HTLV-II Infection Among Drug Addicts in Italy,†Lancet II (1985): 1302; J. R. Bove, “Transfusion-Associated AIDS: A Cause for Concern,†New England Journal of Medicine 310 (1984): 115–16; J. R. Jett, J. N. Kuritsky, J. A. Katzmann, and H. A. Homburger, “Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Associated with Blood-Product Transfusion,†Annals of Internal Medicine 99 (1983): 621–24; E. Lissen, I. Wichmann, J. M. Jimenez, and F. Andrew-Kern, “AIDS in Haemophilia Patients in Spain,†Lancet I (1983): 992; M. Malbye, R. J. Biggar, J. C. Chermann, et al., “High Prevalence of Lymphadenopathy Virus (LAV) in European Haemophiliacs,†Lancet II (1984): 40–41; and J. Wood, “AIDS Mystery: Why It Misses Many Blood Recipients,†San Francisco Chronicle, July 10. 1983: A4.
83 R. D. deShazo, A. Andes, J. Nordberg, et al., “An Immunologic Evaluation of Hemophiliac Patients and Their Wives,†Annals of Internal Medicine 99 (1983): 159–64.
84 H. W. Jaffe, K. Choi, P. A. Thomas, et al., “National Case-Control Study of Kaposi’s Sarcoma and Pneumocystis carinii Pneumonia in Homosexual Men: Part 1, Epidemiologic Results,†Annals of Internal Medicine 99 (1983): 145–51.
85 M. F. Rogers, D. M. Morens, J. A. Stewart, et al., “National Case-Control Study of Kaposi’s Sarcoma and Pneumocystis carinii Pneumonia in Homosexual Men: Part 2, Laboratory Results,†Annals of Internal Medicine 99 (1983): 151–58.
86 Nature 302 (1983): 749–50.
87 D. P. Francis, J. W. Curran, and M. Essex, “Epidemic Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome: Epidemiologic Evidence for a Transmissible Agent,†Journal of the National Cancer Institute 71 (1983): 1–4.
88 Press release of the Office of Cancer Communications, National Cancer Institute, May 12, 1983. The press release refers to the Science studies, which were: R. C. Gallo, P. S. Sarin, E. P. Gelmann, et al., “Isolation of Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus in Acquired Immune-Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS),†Science 220 (1983): 865–67; E. P. Gelmann, M. Popovic, D. Blayney, et al., “Proviral DNA of a Retrovirus, Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus, in Two Patients with AIDS,†Science 220 (1983): 862–65; M. Essex, M. F. McLane, T. H. Lee, et al., “Antibodies to Cell Membrane Antigens Associated with Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus in Patients with AIDS,†Science 220 (1983): 859–62; and F. Barré-Sinoussi, J. C. Chermann, F. Rey, et al., “Isolation of a T-Lymphotropic Retrovirus from a Patient at Risk for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS),†Science 220 (1983): 868–71.
89 J. Oleske, A. Minnefor, R. Cooper, et al., “Immune Deficiency Syndrome in Children,†Journal of the American Medical Association 249 (1983): 2345–49; and A. Rubinstein, M. Sicklick, A. Gupta, et al., “Acquired Immunodeficiency with Reversed T4/T8 Ratios in Infants Born to Promiscuous and Drug-Addicted Mothers,†Journal of the American Medical Association 249 (1983): 2350–56.
90 Centers for Disease Control, “Immunodeficiency Among Female Sexual Partners of Males with Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS)—New York,†Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 31 (1983): 697–98.
91 There are several sources of reference for motivated readers. See A. Goldstein, Addiction: From Biology to Drug Policy (New York: W. H. Freeman, 1994); and E. M. Brecher, Licit and Illicit Drugs (Boston: Little, Brown, 1972). The Goldstein book contains an extremely useful reading list.
92 R. V. Henrickson, D. H. Maul, K. G. Osborn, et al., “Epidemic of Acquired Immunodeficiency in a Colony of Macaque Monkeys,†Lancet I (1983): 388–90.
93 M. D. Daniel, N. W. King, N. L. Letvin, et al., “A New Type D Retrovirus Isolated from Macaques with an Immunodeficiency Syndrome,†Science 223 (1984): 602–5.
94 G. Weissman, “AIDS and Heat,†Hospital Practice, October 1983: 136–49.
95 I. Braveny, “AIDS—A New Plague?†European Journal of Clinical Microbiology 2 (1983): 183–85.
96 See D. Gra
dy, “AIDS: A Plague of Fear,†Discover, July 1983: 73–77; J. E. Groopman and M. S. Gottlieb, “AIDS: The Widening Gyre,†Nature 303 (1983): 575–76; and Shilts (1987), op. cit.
97 Maurice (1983), op. cit.
98 Groupe de Travail Français sur le SIDA, “Le Syndrome d’Immunodéficit Acquis,†La Presse Médicale 12 (1983): 2453–56.
99 H. W. Jaffe, D. P. Francis, M. F. McLane, et al., “Transfusion-Associated AIDS: Serologic Evidence of Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus Infection of Donors,†Science 223 (1984): 1309–12.
100 E. Vilmer, F. Barré-Sinoussi, C. Rouzioux, et al., “Isolation of New Lymphotropic Retrovirus from Two Siblings with Haemophilia B, One with AIDS,†Lancet I (1984): 753–57.
101 M. Chase, “Cancer Virus Tied to AIDS May Be Disclosed Soon,†Wall Street Journal, April 16, 1984: A1.
102 M. Popovic, M. G. Sarngadharan, E. Read, and R. Gallo, “Detection, Isolation, and Continuous Production of Cytopathic Retroviruses (HTLV-III) from Patients with AIDS and Pre-AIDS,†Science 224 (1984): 497–500; R. C. Gallo, S. Z. Salahuddin, M. Popovic, et al., “Frequent Detection and Isolation of Cytopathic Retroviruses (HTLV-III) from Patients with AIDS and at Risk for AIDS,†Science 224 (1984): 500–2; J. Schiipbach, M. Popovic, R. V. Gilden, et al., “Serological Analysis of a Subgroup of Human T-Lympho tropic Retroviruses (HTLV-III) Associated with AIDS,†Science 224 (1984): 503–5; and M. G. Sarngadharan, M. Popovic, L. Bruch, et al., “Antibodies Reactive with Human T-Lymphotropic Retroviruses (HTLV-III) in the Serum of Patients with AIDS,†Science 224 (1984): 506–8.
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