34 S. R. Pattyn, Ebola Virus Haemorrhagic Fever: Proceedings of an International Colloquium on Ebola Virus Infection and Other Haemorrhagic Fevers Held in Antwerp, Belgium, 6–8 December 1977 (Amsterdam: Elsevier/North Holland Biomedical Press, 1978).
35 Ibid.
36 R. C. Baron, J. B. McCormick, and O. A. Zubeir, “Ebola Virus Disease in Southern Sudan: Hospital Dissemination and Intrafamilial Spread,†Bulletin of the World Health Organization 61 (1983): 997–1003.
37 P. Rollin, L. Wilson, J. Childs, et al., “Lassa Fever Epidemic in Plateau State, Nigeria—1993,†presentation to the annual meeting of the American Society for Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Atlanta, October 1993; D. E. Carey, et al., “Lassa Fever—Epidemiological Aspects of the 1970 Epidemic, Jos, Nigeria,†Transactions of the Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 66 (1972): 402–8; and S. P. Fisher-Hoch, O. Tomori, G. I. Perez-Ornonoz, et al., “Transmission of Lethal Viruses Through Routine Parenteral Drug Administration,†personal communication, 1993.
38 “How the Septicemia Trail Led to the IV Bottle Cap,†Hospital Practice, August 1971: 35–45, 151–54.
39 M. Burnet and D. O. White, “Hospital Infections and Iatrogenic Disease,†in M. Burnet and D. O. White, eds., Natural History of Infectious Disease (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1972).
40 D. P. Levine and J. D. Sobel, Infections in Intravenous Drug Abusers (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).
41 D. C. DesJarlais and S. R. Friedman, “Research,†in J. Stryker and M. D. Smith, eds., Needle Exchange, A Kaiser Forum, Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation, Menlo Park, CA, 1993; P. Lurie, A. L. Reingold, B. Bowser, et al., The Public Health Impact of Needle Exchange Programs in the United States and Abroad, Vol. 1, Prepared by the School of Public Health, University of California Berkeley, and the Institute for Health Policy Studies, University of California at San Francisco, for the Centers for Disease Control, 1993; E. J. C. van Ameijden, A. A. R. van den Hoek, and R. A. Coutinho, “Injecting Risk Behavior Among Drug Users in Amsterdam, 1986 to 1992, and Its Relationship to AIDS Prevention Programs,†American Journal of Public Health 84 (1994): 275–81; and C. F. Turner, H. G. Miller, and L. E. Moses, AIDS: Sexual Behavior and Intravenous Drug Use (Washington, D.C.: National Research Council, 1989).
42 The Kaiser Family Foundation convened a special conference on needle exchange issues, bringing together representatives of law enforcement, civil liberties, public health, drug treatment, and political communities. The meeting took place in the Quadras Conference Center, Menlo Park, California, December 10–11, 1992.
43 M. A. Fischl, R. B. Uttamchandani, G. L. Daikos, et al., “An Outbreak of Tuberculosis Caused by Multiple-Drug-Resistant Tubercle Bacilli Among Patients with HIV Infection,†Annals of Internal Medicine 117 (1992): 177–83.
44 J. W. Kislak, T. C. Kickhoff, and M. Finland, “Hospital-Acquired Infections and Antibiotic Usage in the Boston City Hospital—January 1964,†New England Journal of Medicine 271 (1969): 834–35; D. R. Schlaberg, “Evolution of Antimicrobial Resistance and Nosocomial Infection,†American Journal of Medicine 70 (1981): 445; and R. A. Weinstein and S. A. Kabins, “Antimicrobial Resistance,†American Journal of Medicine 70 (1981): 449.
45 L. L. Livornese, S. Dias, C. Samel, et al., “Hospital-Acquired Infection with Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococcus falcium Transmitted by Electronic Thermometers,†Annals of Internal Medicine 117 (1992): 112–16; and R. W. Haley, D. H. Culver, W. M. Morgan, et al., “Increasing Recognition of Infectious Diseases in U.S. Hospitals Through Increased Use of Diagnostic Tests, 1970–76,†American Journal of Epidemiology 121 (1985): 168–81.
46 “How the Septicemia Trail Led to the IV Bottle Cap†(1971), op. cit.
47 I. Raad, W. Costerton, I. V. Sabharwa, et al., “Ultrastructural Analysis of Indwelling Vascular Catheters: A Quantitative Relationship Between Luminal Colonization and Duration of Placement,†Journal of Infectious Diseases 168 (1993): 400–7; R. Pallares, M. Pujol, C. Pena, et al., “Cephalosporins as Risk Factors for Nosocomial Enterococcus falcalis Bacteremia,†Archives of Internal Medicine 153 (1993): 1581–86; and W. E. Stam, “Nosocomial Infections: Etiologic Changes, Therapeutic Challenges,†Hospital Practice, August 1981: 75–88.
48 National Nosocomial Infections Surveillance System, “Nosocomial Infections Rates for Interhospital Comparison: Limitations and Possible Solutions,†Infection Control and Hospital Epidemiology 112 (1991): 609–21; M. Olson, M. O’Connor, M. D. Schwartz, “Surgical Wound Infections: A 5-Year Prospective Study of 20,193 Wounds at the Minneapolis VA Medical Center,†Annals of Surgery 199 (1984): 253–59; P. J. E. Cruise, “Wound Infection Surveillance,†Review of Infectious Diseases 3 (1981): 739–37; and R. W. Haley, D. H. Culver, W. M. Morgan, et al., “Identifying Patients at High Risk of Surgical Wound Infection,†American Journal of Epidemiology 121 (1985): 206–15.
49 T. M. Stine, A. A. Harris, S. Levin, et al., “A Pseudo-Epidemic Due to Atypical Mycobacteria in a Hospital Water Supply,†Journal of the American Medical Association 258 (1987): 809–11; and G. A. Harkness, D. W. Bentley, K. J. Roghmann, “Risk Factors for Nosocomial Pneumonia in the Elderly,†American Journal of Medicine 89 (1990): 457–63.
50 H. C. Neu, “The Crisis in Antibiotic Resistance,†Science 257 (1992): 1064–73; and B. Jarvis, personal communication, Centers for Disease Control, 1993.
51 Centers for Disease Control, “Summary of the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry Report to Congress,†Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 39 (1990): 822–24; D. J. Hu, M. A. Kane, and D. L. Heymann, “Transmission of HIV, Hepatitis B Virus and Other Bloodborne Pathogens in Health Care Settings: A Review of Risk Factors and Guidelines for Protection,†Bulletin of the World Health Organization 69 (1991): 623–30; D. L. Thomas, S. H. Factor, G. D. Kelen, et al., “Viral Hepatitis in Health Care Personnel at the Johns Hopkins Hospital,†Archives of Internal Medicine 153 (1993): 1705–12; G. P. Kent, J. Brondum, R. A. Keenlyside, et al., “A Large Outbreak of Acupuncture-Associated Hepatitis B,†American Journal of Epidemiology 127 (1988): 591–98; and F. E. Shaw, C. L. Barrett, R. Hamm, et al., “Lethal Outbreak of Hepatitis B in a Dental Practice,†Journal of the American Medical Association 255 (1986): 3261–64.
52 Centers for Disease Control, “Nosocomial Enterococci Resistant to Vancomycin—United States, 1988–1993,†Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 42 (1993): 597; and T. R. Frieden, S. S. Munsiff, D. E. Low, et al., “Emergence of Vancomycin-Resistant Enterococci in New York City,†Lancet 342 (1993): 76–79.
53 J. M. Leclair, J. Freeman, B. F. Sullivan, et al., “Prevention of Nosocomial Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infections Through Compliance with Glove and Gown Isolation Precautions,†New England Journal of Medicine 317 (1987): 329–34.
54 M. L. Cohen, “Epidemiology of Drug Resistance: Implications for a Post-Antimicrobial Era,†Science 257 (1992): 1050–55; L. O. Gentry, “Bacterial Resistance,†Orthopedic Clinics of North America 22 (1991): 379–88; and Neu (1992), op. cit.
55 Neu (1992), op. cit.
56 Ibid.
57 E. E. Mast, H. W. Harmon, S. Gravenstein, et al., “Emergence and Possible Transmission of Amantadine-Resistant Viruses During Nursing Home Outbreaks of Influenza A (H3N2),†American Journal of Epidemiology 134 (1991): 988–97.
58 A. B. Block, P. T. Davidson, et al., “Tuberculosis in Patients with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection.†New England Journal of Medicine 324 (1991): 1644–50; M. L. Pearson, J. A. Jereb, T. R. Frieden, et al., “Nosocomial Transmission of Multidrug
-Resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis,†Annals of Internal Medicine 117 (1992): 191–96; B. R. Edlin, J. I. Tokars, M. H. Grieco, et al., “An Outbreak of Multidrug-Resistant Tuberculosis Among Hospitalized Patients with the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome,†New England Journal of Medicine 326 (1992): 1514–21; and S. Dooley, B. Edlin, M. Pearson, et al., “Multidrug-Resistant Nosocomial Tuberculosis Outbreaks in HIV-Infected Persons,†presentation to the VIII International Conference on AIDS, Amsterdam, 1992.
59 G. L. Lattimer and R. A. Ormsbee, Legionnaires’ Disease (New York: Marcel Dekker, 1981); A. F. Kaufman, J. E. McDade, C. M. Patton, et al., “Pontiac Fever: Isolation of the Etiologic Agent (Legionella pneumophila) and Demonstration of Its Mode of Transmission,†American Journal of Epidemiology 114 (1981): 337–47; H. M. Foy, P. S. Hayes, M. K. Cooney, et al., “Legionnaires’ Disease in a Prepaid Medical-Care Group in Seattle 1963–75,†Lancet, April 7, 1979: 767–70; L. Saravolatz, L. Arking, B. Wentworth, and E. Quinn, “Prevalence of Antibody to the Legionnaires’ Disease Bacterium in Hospital Employees,†Annals of Internal Medicine 90 (1979): 601–3; C. M. Helms, M. Massanari, R. P. Wenzel, et al., “Legionnaires’ Disease Associated with a Hospital Water System,†Journal of the American Medical Association 259 (1988): 2423–26; K. Nahapetian, O. Challemel, D. Bevrtin, et al., “The Intracellular Multiplication of Legionella pneumophila in Protozoa from Hospital Plumbing Systems,†Research in Microbiology 142 (1991): 677–85; and M. Alary and J. R. Joly, “Factors Contributing to the Contamination of Hospital Water Distribution Systems by Legionellae,†Journal of Infectious Diseases 165 (1992): 565–69.
60 A. Gibbons, “Where Are Diseases Born?†Science 261 (1993): 680–81.
61 N. Chiles, “In Rats’ Realm,†New York Newsday, May 9, 1994: A8.
62 On-line as of mid-1993 were Cameroon, Congo, Ghana (Accra and Navrongo), Kenya, Mozambique, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Brazil, Cuba, Canada, Australia, and the United States. By January 1995, Mali, Botswana, Sudan, Malawi, Ethiopia, and Gambia were scheduled to be on-line.
SatelLife is based in Cambridge, Massachusetts.
63 For a synopsis of what might be worth tracking in the environment, see N. Nichols, “Teleconnections and Death,†Chapter 16 in M. H. Glantz, R. W. Katz, and N. Nichols, eds., Teleconnections Linking Worldwide Climate Anomalies (Cambridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press, 1991).
64 World Health Organization, “World Immunization Report,†released September 28, 1990, Geneva.
65 See E. W. Kitch, “The Vaccine Dilemma,†Issues in Science and Technology (Winter 1986): 108–22; B. M. Nkowane, S. G. F. Wassilak, W. A. Orenstein, et al., “Vaccine-Associated Paralytic Poliomyelitis,†Journal of the American Medical Association 257 (1987): 1335–40; J. K. Inglehart, “Compensating Children with Vaccine-Related Injuries,†New England Journal of Medicine (1987): 1283–88; and R. W. Ellis and R. G. Douglas, “New Vaccine Technologies,†Journal of the American Medical Association 271 (1994): 929–31.
66 D. A. Henderson, “New Challenges for Tropical Medicine Syndrome,†Charles Franklin Lecture at the annual meeting of the American Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Seattle, November 19, 1992.
67 J. Lederberg, speech before the Irvington Institute for Medical Research, Bankers Trust Company, New York, February 8, 1994.
Acknowledgments
Time spent on preparation of this book constituted time taken from Newsday/New York Newsday, and I am extremely grateful for the extraordinary tolerance extended to me by my employers. But of course, I have more than mere tolerance to applaud on Newsday’s part: several editors and reporters have been extremely encouraging and directly supportive throughout this effort. I would like to thank Tony Marro, Howard Schneider, and Don Forst for tolerating my absences, and assistant managing editor Les Payne, science editor Liz Bass, deputy science editors Mike Muskal and Reg Gale, and reporter Catherine Woodard for their words of encouragement and insight.
Few American news organizations have demonstrated continued interest in AIDS, developing country issues, public health, or international medical policy issues. Newsday has, much to my delight, been a clear exception. And I thank the organization for that as well.
Some of my earliest work in this subject area was carried out while I was a science correspondent for National Public Radio, and I thank science editor Anne Gudenkauf and NPR for their support during that period (1980–88).
Crucial to this project were the Harvard School of Public Health, the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, and the Kaiser Family Foundation. From September 1992 to June 1994 I had the distinct honor of being a Visiting Fellow under the Harvard Journalism Fellowship for Advanced Studies in Public Health. I received thoughtful assistance from Jay Winsten and his staff in the Center for Health Communication. My stay on the Harvard campus from September 1992 to June 1993 was subsidized by the Alfred P. Sloan Foundation and Newsday, and for their generosity I am deeply grateful. At Harvard I received particular encouragement from Bob Meyers, who now heads the Washington Journalism Center.
Because of an occupational injury I am no longer able to use a keyboard. This document had to be written in longhand, and subsequently transcribed by others. I thank Dean Harvey Fineberg of the Harvard School of Public Health for his provision of resources that allowed me to hire graduate student Sue McLaughlin as a transcriber during my tenure at Harvard. And, of course, I thank Sue for her typing, encouragement, and critiques.
The Kaiser Family Foundation generously underwrote some of the transcription costs incurred after my Harvard tenure, allowing me the deeply rewarding opportunity of working with Amy Wollin Benjamin. Having admired her editorial achievements with production of the mammoth AIDS in the World, I dared to hope that Benjamin would deign to assist this project. She proved a masterful editor, critic, source of moral rearmament and, of course, transcriber. Quite honestly, this book could not have been produced without her.
I would also like to thank the physical therapists and physicians at the Miller Institute in Manhattan who kept my body fairly functional through this often taxing process, as well as massage therapists Joan Jacob Howe and Jeannette Kossuth.
I have always felt that librarians practiced one of humanity’s noblest professions, and researching this book only bolstered that view. I particularly would like to thank the librarians of Harvard’s Countway Medical Library and Newsday/New York Newsday.
Many people generously assisted along the way, providing reading critiques, research guidance, and crucial insights. I particularly would like to thank Andrea Eagan, Maryse Simonet, Deborah Cotton, Bunmi Makinwa, Jill Hannum, B. D. Colen, Bob Meyers, Jonathan Mann, Andrew Moss, Frank Browning, Bernard Fields, Mark Benjamin, Maya Szalavitz, Stephen Morse, Michael Reich, Barbara Rosencrantz, Penny Duckham, the staffs of the Offices of Public Affairs of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the National Institutes of Health, the World Health Organization, and the Institut Pasteur, Buki Ponle, Wendy Wertheimer, Günther Haaf, Michael Callen, Uwe Brinkmann, and the members of the Harvard New Diseases Group (Tamara Awerbach, Agnes and Uwe Brinkmann, Richard Cash, Irina Eckardt, Paul Epstein, Timothy Ford, Richard Levins, Najwa Makhoul, Christina de Albuquerque Possas, Charles Puccia, Manuel Sierra, Andrew Spielman, Mary Wilson, and Paul Wise). In the interests of journalistic integrity, no one reviewed sections of the book in which they, their work, or the works of their competitors were discussed.
Special thanks are owed to Jill Hannum, who, in the final crunch, devoted hours to finding ways to reduce the lengthy manuscript.
Anyone who has ever written a book knows what a toll its writing takes on friends and family members. Thanks to all of you, from San Clemente and San Salvador to New York and Boston, for putting up with me throughout this process, especial
ly Bink, Bonnie, Banning, Evelyn, Karen, Bob, Caryl, Jim, Manoli, Lars, Ellen, Angela, Adi, Michael, Lisa, Steve, Larry, Spencer, Frank, and David.
I thank my agent, Charlotte Sheedy, for her tenacity. And Farrar, Straus and Giroux editor John Glusman for working at an unusually frenetic pace in order to hasten this book’s publication, and for offering wonderful editorial insight and much appreciated encouragement.
Finally, I deeply regret the untimely deaths of Andrea Eagan, Uwe Brinkmann, and Michael Callen, whose comments during later stages of book production would undoubtedly have immensely improved the manuscript. I only hope I have done justice to their insights.
Index
The index that appeared in the print version of this title does not match the pages of your eBook. Please use the search function on your eReading device to search for terms of interest. For your reference, the terms that appear in the print index are listed below.
Aaby, Peter
Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Laboratory
Abrams, Donald
Abscam scandal
acquired immune deficiency syndrome, see AIDS
Act Up
acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS)
acyclovir
adenoviruses
Adolfo Lutz Institute
Aedes: A. aegypti; A. albopictus; A. pseudoscutellaris
Afghanistan; heroin in
African-Americans
The Coming Plague Page 121