by Jo Marchant
19. See: http://www.redbullstratos.com/the-team/felix-baumgartner/
20. Interviews with Fabrizio Benedetti, Breuil-Cervina, March 21, 2014, and Plateau Rosa, March 22, 2014.
21. Levine, J.D., Gordon, N.C. & Fields, H.L. The Lancet 1978; 312: 654–657
22. Kirsch, I. Epidemiologia e psichiatria sociale 2009; 18: 318–322
Kirsch, I. The Emperor’s New Drugs: Exploding the Antidepressant Myth (Basic Books, 2011)
23. Benedetti, F., Carlino, E. & Pollo, A. Clinical Pharmacology & Therapeutics 2011; 90: 651–661
24. Wechsler, M.E. et al. New England Journal of Medicine 2011; 365: 119–126
25. Chvetzoff, G. & Tannock, I.F. Journal of the National Cancer Institute 2003; 95: 19–29
26. Freed, C.R. et al. New England Journal of Medicine 2001; 344: 710–719
27. McRae, E. et al. Archives of General Psychiatry 2004; 6: 412–420
CHAPTER TWO
1. Interview with Ted Kaptchuk, Cambridge, Massachusetts, May 28, 2014.
2. Kaptchuk, T.J. et al. British Medical Journal 2006; 332: 391
3. Moerman, D.J. Medical Anthropology Quarterly 2000; 14: 51–72
According to Moerman, one of the major arguments for meaning as the source of placebo effects comes from the evidence for such cultural differences. Moerman has carried out extensive research on this topic, with many of the findings summarized in chapter six of his 2002 book, Meaning, Medicine and the Placebo Effect.
4. Amanzio, M., Pollo, A., Maggi, G. & Benedetti, F. Pain 2001; 90: 205–215
5. Telephone interview with Dan Moerman, April 20, 2011, confirmed via email May 2015.
6. Walsh, B.T., Seidman, S.N., Sysko, R. & Gould, M. Journal of the American Medical Association 2002; 287: 1840–1847
7. Kaptchuk, T.J. et al. PLoS ONE 2010; 5: e15591
8. Kelley, J.M. et al. Psychotherapy & Psychosomatics 2012; 81: 312–314
9. Kam-Hansen, S. et al. Science Translational Medicine 2014; 6: 218ra5
10. See: http://www.aplacebo.com/
11. Moerman, D. Pain Practice 2006; 6: 233–236
12. Email interviews with Edzard Ernst, February 4, 2014, and April 13, 2015.
13. See: http://edition.cnn.com/2012/05/29/world/asia/afghanistan-girls-poisoned/
14. World Health Organization Weekly Epidemiological Monitor, vol. 5, issue 22: Sunday, May 27, 2012
15. Lorber, W., Mazzoni, G. & Kirsch, I. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 2007; 33: 112–116
Witthöft, M. & Rubin, G.J. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 2013; 74: 206–212
16. Reeves, R.R., Ladner, M.E., Hart, R.H. & Burke, R.S. General Hospital Psychiatry 2007; 29: 275–277
17. Silvestri, A. et al. European Heart Journal 2003; 24: 1928–1932
18. Nicholas Humphrey, a theoretical psychologist based in Cambridge, U.K., has written extensively on the evolutionary rationale behind placebo responses. He postulates the existence of a “health governor” in the brain, which acts like a hospital administrator, forecasting the body’s future needs and allocating costly resources (from immune responses to self-generated symptoms, such as pain or fever) appropriately.
These ideas are discussed in “Great Expectations: The Evolutionary Psychology of Faith Healing and the Placebo Effect,” an essay in Humphrey’s 2002 book The Mind Made Flesh (pp. 255–285). A more recent review is Humphrey, N. & Skoyles, J. Current Biology 2012; 22: R1–R4.
19. Benedetti, F., Durando, J. & Vighetti, S. Pain 2014; 155: 921–928
20. This quote originally appeared in the article “Heal Thyself” by Jo Marchant, New Scientist, August 27, 2011, pp. 30–34.
21. Walach advocates the use of alternative medicine, a view that in 2012 helped to win him a German skeptics’ award for pseudoscience called the “Goldene Brett.”
22. Walach, H. & Jonas, W.B. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Medicine 2004; 10: S-103-S-112
23. Telephone interview with Irving Kirsch April 20, 2011, confirmed via email May 2015.
24. Kaptchuk, T.J. et al. British Medical Journal 2008; 336: 999
25. Gracely, R.H. et al. The Lancet 1985; 1: 43
26. McMillan, F.D. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association 1999; 215: 992–999
27. Jensen, K.B. et al. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2012; 109: 15959–15964
CHAPTER THREE
1. Someone with a transplanted kidney is two to three times more likely to develop cancer compared to a person of the same age and sex in the general population, mainly because the drugs that prevent their body from rejecting the organ also suppress immune responses that would normally protect them from cancer.
Wong, G. et al. Kidney International 2014; 85: 1262–1264
2. Interview with Fabrizio Benedetti, Breuil-Cervina, March 21, 2014, and email interview, February 13, 2014.
3. Telephone interview with Adrian Sandler, February 7, 2014.
4. Sandler, A.D. et al. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics 2010; 31: 369–375
5. Ader, R. & Cohen, N. Psychosomatic Medicine 1975; 37: 333–340
6. Interview with Manfred Schedlowski, University of Essen, March 27, 2014.
7. Vitello, P. New York Times, December 29, 2011, p. B8
8. Healing and the Mind with Bill Moyers 1993, Ambrose Video Publishing, vol. 2: “The Mind Body Connection”
9. Williams, J.M. et al. Brain Research Bulletin 1981; 6: 83–94
10. The Rochester Review 1997; vol. 59, no. 3 (available at: http://www.rochester.edu/pr/Review/V59N3/feature2.html)
11. Healing and the Mind with Bill Moyers 1993, Ambrose Video Publishing, vol. 2: “The Mind Body Connection”
12. Ader, R. & Cohen, N. Science 1982; 215: 1534–1536
13. Healing and the Mind with Bill Moyers 1993, Ambrose Video Publishing, vol. 2: “The Mind Body Connection”
14. Olness, K. & Ader, R. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 1992; 13: 124–125
15. Giang, G.W. et al. The Journal of Psychiatry & Clinical Neurosciences 1996; 8: 194–201
16. Telephone interview with Karen Olness, February 27, 2014.
17. Exton, M.S. et al. Transplantation Proceedings 1998; 30: 2033
18. Exton, M.S. et al. American Journal of Physiology—Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 1999; 276: 710–717
19. Vits, S. et al. Brain, Behavior & Immunity 2013; 29: S17
20. Goebel, M.U. et al. Psychotherapy & Psychosomatics 2008; 77: 227–234
21. This statistic comes from Witzke. For more detailed statistics, see: http://srtr.transplant.hrsa.gov/annual_reports/2012/
22. Interview with Oliver Witzke, University of Essen, March 27, 2014.
23. Ghanta, V.K. et al. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1987; 496: 637–646
Ghanta, V.K. et al. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1988; 521: 29–42
Ghanta, V.K. et al. Cancer Research 1990; 50: 4295–4299
Ghanta, V.K. et al. International Journal of Neuroscience 1993; 71: 251–265
24. Ader, R. et al. Psychosomatic Medicine 2010; 72: 192–197
25. Doering, B.K. & Rief, W. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences 2012; 33: 165–172
CHAPTER FOUR
1. West, J.B. High Life: A History of High-Altitude Physiology and Medicine (1998), Oxford University Press, p. 281
2. Ibid., p. 282
3. Grocott, M.P.W. et al. New England Journal of Medicine 2009; 360: 140–149
4. The oxygen content of the air we breathe falls as we climb, of course, but up to more than 23,000 feet—in these experienced, acclimatized climbers at least—the body was able to compensate for this by increasing the amount of hemoglobin (the molecule that transports oxygen) in the blood.
5. Email interview with Dan Martin, May 11, 2015.
6. Noakes, T.D. Journal of Applied Physiology 2009; 106: 737–738
7. This is known in the field as “the lactate paradox.” For a discussion of the evidence for this effect, see:
West, J.B. Journal of Applied Physiology 2007; 102: 2398–2399
Van Hall, G. Journal of Applied Physiology 2007; 102: 2399–2401
West, J.B. Journal of Applied Physiology 2007; 102: 2401
8. BBC London 2012 coverage; clip available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/olympics/18912882
9. BBC London 2012 coverage; article available at: http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/athletics/19230671
10. Nathan, M. et al. South African Medical Journal 1983; 64: 132–137
Kew, T. et al. South African Medical Journal 1991; 80: 127–133 Noakes, T. et al. British Medical Journal 1995; 310: 1345–1346
11. Noakes, T.D. South African Medical Journal 2012; 102: 430–432
12. Email interview with Tim Noakes, April 22, 2014.
13. St. Clair Gibson, A. et al. American Journal of Physiology—Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 2001; 281: R187–R196
Kay, D. et al. European Journal of Applied Physiology 2001; 84: 115–121 For more discussion of the evidence for Noakes’s central governor, see the article “Running on Empty” by Rick Lovett, New Scientist, March 20, 2004, pp. 42–45.
14. Noakes, T.D. et al. The Journal of Experimental Biology 2001; 204: 3225–3234
Noakes, T.D. Applied Physiology, Nutrition and Metabolism 2011; 36: 23–35
15. Email interview with Dan Martin, May 18, 2015.
16. Swart, J. et al. British Journal of Sports Medicine 2009; 43: 782–788
17. Okano, A.H. et al. British Journal of Sports Medicine 2013; doi: 10:1136/bjsports-2012-091658
18. Beedie, C.J. & Foad, A. Sports Medicine 2009; 39: 313–329
19. Interview with Chris Beedie, London, April 10, 2014.
20. Pollo, A. et al. European Journal of Neuroscience 2008; 28: 379–388
21. Cairns, R. & Hotopf, M. Occupational Medicine 2005; 55: 20–31
22. This might be about to change, however. A 2015 study that analyzed blood samples from nearly 650 people found that those who had been ill for less than three years had higher levels of chemicals that induce inflammation in the body compared to healthy controls, while those who had been sick for longer had lower-than-normal levels.
23. White, P.D. et al. The British Journal of Psychiatry 1998; 173: 475–481
24. For information about the trials, see:
Edmonds, M. et al. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2004; 3: CD003200
Bagnall, A.-M. et al. “The Treatment and Management of Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (CFS)/Myalgic Encephalomyelitis (ME) in Adults and Children: Update of CRD Report 22.” Available at: http://www.york.ac.uk/media/crd/crdreport35.pdf
Malouff, J.M. et al. Clinical Psychology Review 2008; 28: 736–45
Price, J.R. et al. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2008; 3: CD001027
25. Telephone interview with Peter White, May 2, 2014.
26. White, P.D. et al. The Lancet 2011; 377: 823–836
27. The Lancet 2011; 377: 1808
28. Collings, A.D. & Newton, D. Response to White, P.D. British Medical Journal 2004; 329: 928
Available at: http://www.bmj.com/content/329/7472/928/rr/702549
29. Blackmore, S.J. Response to White, P. D. British Medical Journal 2004; 329: 928
Available at: http://www.bmj.com/content/329/7472/928/rr/759419
30. For more information on Samantha’s art, please see: http://www.samantha-miller.co.uk/
CHAPTER FIVE
1. Interview with Peter Whorwell, Withington Community Hospital, Manchester, May 14–15, 2014.
2. Herr, H.W. Urologic Oncology: Seminars and Original Investigations 2005; 23: 346–351
3. Interview with David Spiegel, Curie Institute, Paris, October 23, 2013.
4. We vary in how hypnotizable we are. The classic scale of hypnotizability involves giving people a series of test suggestions that they pass or fail, for example that their arm will rise by itself, or that they’ll see their best friend in the room. It’s generally said that around 80% of the population score in the medium range, with 10% of people highly hypnotizable and 10% barely hypnotizable at all (for example, see hypnosis.tools/measurement-of-hypnosis.html). How people score on this test varies slightly in different studies and in different populations tested, however (for example, see Bongartz, W. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 1985; 33: 131–139).
5. Kosslyn, S.M. et al. The American Journal of Psychiatry 2000; 157: 1279–1284
6. Dikel, W. & Olness, K. Pediatrics 1980; 66: 335–340
7. Telephone interview with Karen Olness, February 27, 2014.
8. Casiglia, E. et al. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 1997; 40: 368–375
9. Casiglia, E. et al. International Journal of Psychophysiology 2006; 62: 60–65
10. Casiglia, E. et al. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 2007; 49: 255–266
11. Email interview with Edoardo Casiglia, March 4, 2014.
12. For example: Kiecolt-Glaser, J.K. et al. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 2001; 69: 674–682
Naito, A. et al. Brain Research Bulletin 2003; 62: 241–253
13. For example:
Hewson-Bower, B. & Drummond, P.D. Journal of Psychosomatic Research 2000; 51: 369–377 (upper respiratory infections)
Spanos, N.P. et al. Psychosomatic Medicine 1990; 52: 109–114 (warts)
Results are mixed, however. Karen Olness carried out a trial of 61 children with warts, who received either hypnotherapy, standard treatment or no treatment. There was no significant difference between the three groups.
Felt, B.T. et al. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis 1998; 41: 130–137
14. Whorwell, P.J. et al. The Lancet 1984; 324: 1232–1234
15. Miller, V. & Whorwell, P.W. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 2009; 57: 279–292
16. Calvert, E.L. et al. Gastroenterology 2002; 123: 1778–1785
Miller, V. & Whorwell, P.W. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 2009; 57: 279–292
17. Miller, V. & Whorwell, P.J. International Journal of Clinical and Experimental Hypnosis 2008; 56: 306–317
Mawdsley, J.E. et al. The American Journal of Gastroenterology 2008; 103: 1460–1469
Keefer, L. et al. Alimentary Pharmacological Therapy 2013; 38: 761–771
18. Gonsalkorale, W. M. et al. Gut 2003; 52: 1623–1629
19. Lea, R. et al. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics 2003; 17: 635–642
20. Chiarioni, G., Vantini, I., de Iorio, F. & Benini, L. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics 2006; 23: 1241–1249
21. Whorwell, P. J. et al. The Lancet 1992; 340: 69–72
22. For example, see:
Lindfors, P. et al. American Journal of Gastroenterology 2012; 107: 276–285
Moser, G. et al. American Journal of Gastroenterology 2013; 108: 602–609
23. Peters, S.L. et al. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics 2015; doi: 10:1111/apt.13202
24. See: http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/hypnotherapy/Page271Introduction.aspx [Accessed March 24, 2015]
25. Interview with Jeremy Howick, Oxford, April 20, 2015.
26. According to the NIH’s online search tool, projectreporter.nih.gov, the NIH is currently funding five research projects with “hypnosis” or “hypnotherapy” in the title (compared to 35 for “mindfulness,” for example).
27. Miller, V. et al. Alimentary Pharmacology & Therapeutics 2015; doi: 10:1111/apt.13145
CHAPTER SIX
1. Sam Brown’s story is told in “Burning Man” by Jay Kirk, GQ magazine, February 2012. Available at: http://www.gq.com/news-politics/newsmakers/201202/burning-man-sam-brown-jay-kirk-gq-februar
y-2012
2. Hoffman, H.G. et al. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 2011; 41: 183–191
3. “Painkiller Addiction: The Plague That Is Sweeping the U.S.” by Ed Pilkington, Guardian, November 28, 2012. Available at: http://www.theguardian.com/society/2012/nov/28/painkiller-addiction-plague-united-states
4. The American Society of Interventional Pain Physicians (ASIPP) Fact Sheet. Available at: https://www.asipp.org/documents/ASIPPFactSheet101111.pdf
5. “Opioids Drive Continued Increase in Overdose Deaths,” CDC Press Release, February 20, 2013. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/media/releases/2013/p0220_drug_overdose_deaths.html
See also “Vital Signs: Overdoses of Opioid Prescription Pain Relievers—United States, 1999–2008,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 2011; 60: 1487–1492. Available at: http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm6043a4.htm
6. “Painkiller Addictions Worst Drug Epidemic in U.S. History” by Amel Ahmed, Al Jazeera America, August 30, 2013. Available at: http://america.aljazeera.com/articles/2013/8/29/painkiller-kill-morepeoplethanmarijuanause.html
7. “Aron Ralston Shares His Incredible Story of Survival.” Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=83nk6zmu5_o
8. Telephone interview with Hunter Hoffman, May 7, 2014.
9. Figure from interview with Sam Sharar, University of Washington Medical Center, May 8–9, 2014. See also Hoffman, H. et al. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 2011; 41: 183–191
10. Reviewed in Hoffman, H. et al. Annals of Behavioral Medicine 2011; 41: 183–191
11. Maani, C.V. et al. Journal of Trauma and Acute Care Surgery 2011; 71: S125–130
12. This quote appears in “Burning Man” by Jay Kirk, GQ magazine, February 2012. Available at: http://www.gq.com/news-politics/newsmakers/201202/burning-man-sam-brown-jay-kirk-gq-february-2012
13. Esdaile’s treatment of Gooroochuan Shah is described in Hidden Depths: The Story of Hypnosis (2002) by Robin Waterfield, pp. 196–197.