by Theo Emery
Fries estimated the AEF: Memorandum from Chief of Gas Service to Lieutenant D. W. Salisbury, Re: Automatic Monthly Supplies for 1918, Mar. 15, 1918, War Department Records, General Amos A. Fries Papers 1918–1920, A–C, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 7, box 15, NACP.
Fries wanted an organization: Letter from Amos Fries to Bessie Fries, Mar. 20, 1918, Amos A. Fries Papers, 1896–1953.
As a result: History of the Chemical Warfare Service, AEF, 29.
As Fries pushed: Ibid., 28.
Making the service: Letter from Amos Fries to Bessie Fries, Apr. 7, 1918, Amos A. Fries Papers, 1896–1953.
“I would be glad”: Ibid., Feb. 11, 1918.
The Germans rejected: “Germans Don’t Intend to Give Up Poison Gas,” New York Times, Feb. 28, 1918, 3.
He remained adamant: Fries memoir; Fries and West, Chemical Warfare, 399.
“Bad as they are”: Letter from Amos Fries to Bessie Fries, Mar. 12, 1918, Amos A. Fries Papers, 1896–1953.
About 260 miles: Higginbottom diary entry, Mar. 1, 1918.
About three quarters of the casualties: Report on Projector Attack on American Troops, Feb. 28, 1918, AEF General Headquarters, G-3 Reports, Secret Correspondence, Records of the AEF (World War I), RG 120, finding aid NM-91, entry 268, box 3141, NACP.
At 5:00 a.m.: Higginbottom diary entry, Mar. 4, 1918.
In the afternoon: Ibid., Mar. 5, 1918.
That same afternoon: Ibid., Mar. 6, 1918.
On March 15: Ibid., Mar. 15, 1918.
Two nights in a row: Ibid., Mar. 19, 1918.
One night while they waited: Ibid., Mar. 16, 1918.
In the cyclone of noise: Ibid., Mar. 21, 1918.
Chapter Ten: “Science and Horror”
The mud was six inches: Higginbottom diary entry, Apr. 6, 1918.
As part of the surge: Addison, Story of the First Gas Regiment, 26.
For hours: Higginbottom diary entry, Apr. 7, 1918.
In the morning: Ibid., Apr. 8, 1918.
Georgette began: Addison, Story of the First Gas Regiment, 27.
More than fifty: Ibid.
But Higgie: Higginbottom diary entry, Apr. 9, 1918.
Casualty numbers: Gas Casualties in AEF, Compiled from Gas Officers’ Reports, no date, General Fries’ Files, 1918–1920, A–C Edgewood Arsenal, 1917–1943. CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 7, box 15, NACP.
Addison was receiving: Addison diary entry, Apr. 4, 1918.
“It was a long tale”: Ibid., Apr. 6, 1918.
“Some new method”: Ibid., Apr. 8, 1918.
After leaving Chaumont: Letter from Amos Fries to Bessie Fries, Apr. 7, 1918, Amos A. Fries Papers, 1896–1953.
he assured Bessie: Ibid., May 7, 1918.
a general who was: The general appears to have been Chief of Engineers William Black, but it’s unclear from Fries’s letter about the visit.
“Certainly they know”: Letter from Amos Fries to Bessie Fries, Mar. 25, 1918, Amos A. Fries Papers, 1896–1953.
“It promises”: Ibid., Apr. 7, 1918.
“Because of its vast”: History of the Chemical Warfare Service, AEF, folder H-12, First Gas Regiment files 1984–87, box 96, Carlisle Attic Collection, CCM.
cabled Fries: Letter from Amos Fries to Bessie Fries, May 1, 1918, Amos A. Fries Papers, 1896–1953.
“with no man”: Ibid., May 9, 1918.
With Pershing’s blessing: Letter from Commander in Chief to Adjutant General, U.S. Army, Re: Chemical or Gas Service, Aug. 4, 1917, George A. Hulett Papers, call no. C0460, Manuscripts Division, Department of Rare Books and Special Collections, Princeton University Library.
What happened to the rest: Memorandum from Assistant Director Gas Service Laboratory to Acting Chief of Technical Division, Gas Service, Re: Shipment of Chemical Supplies from the United States, May 15, 1918, War Department, General Fries’ Files, 1918–1920, O–S, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 7, box 19, NACP.
Eventually, it began arriving: History of the Chemical Warfare Service, AEF, Technical Division, part 2, Paris Laboratory, 1.
When it was up: Ibid., 4.
Beginning in the spring: Letter from Amos Fries to Bessie Fries, May 9, 1918, Amos A. Fries Papers, 1896–1953.
He felt that: Ibid., Apr. 12, 1918.
More than 900 people: Analysis of President Staff, Personnel Report, May 4, 1918, War Gas Investigation, Reports and Other Records, BOM, RG 70, finding aid A-1, entry 46, box 110, NACP.
Temporary barracks went up: McPherson, “Historical Sketch,” 54.
Pumps drew water: Ibid., 62.
A twenty-thousand-kilowatt electrical plant: “Central Power Station, Bush River,” General Fries’ Files, 1918–20, O–S, War Department, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 7, box 19, NACP.
On April 2: Bancroft, History of the Chemical Warfare Service, 3 (227).
Edgewood turned into a boomtown: Benedict Crowell and Robert Forrest Wilson, Armies of Industry II: Our Nation’s Manufacture of Munitions for a World in Arms (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1921), 492.
Walker commanded dozens of engineers: Letter from Brigadier General C. B. Wheeler to Colonel William Walker, Apr. 2, 1918, Establishment of Gunpowder Reservation, Technical Document Files, 1917–1920, Major McPherson’s Personnel File—Masks, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 8, box 10, NACP.
Afterward, Burrell wrote: Letter from George A. Burrell to Lieutenant Colonel William Walker, Mar. 2, 1918, Technical Document File, 1917–1920, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PI-8, entry 8, box 3, NACP.
There were so many problems: Bancroft, History of the Chemical Warfare Service, 22 (245), Spring Valley.
By around May 1: Ibid., 25 (248).
Mustard had taken so long: Letter from Elmer Kohler to James Bryant Conant, Aug. 9, 1918, call no. UAI 15.898, folder “War Work at Willoughby Near Cleveland—1918,” box 142, Papers of James Bryant Conant, 1862–1987, Harvard University Archives.
Conant had made his mark: U.S. Army commission, Apr. 13, 1918, folder “War Work at Willoughby Near Cleveland—1918,” box 142, Papers of James Bryant Conant, Harvard University Archives.
A month later: Western Union telegram, folder “War Work at Willoughby Near Cleveland—1918,” box 142, Papers of James Bryant Conant, Harvard University Archives.
This new endeavor began: Report to the Secretary of the Interior on the Research Work of the Bureau of Mines on War Gas Investigations, July 1, 1917 to May 15, 1918, 19 (59), War Gas Investigations Reports and Other Records, BOM, RG 70, finding aid A-1, entry 46, box 110, NACP.
“Further tests of this method”: Report for the week ending Apr. 13, 1918, of work at the Catholic University Annex, Offensive Chemical Research Division, War Gas Investigations, BOM, American University Experiment Station—Washington, DC, Apr. 15, 1918, L. Philip Reiss Collection.
Father Griffin: Report to the Secretary of the Interior on the Research Work of the Bureau of Mines on War Gas Investigations, July 1, 1917 to May 15, 1918, 19 (59).
The difficulty: Report for the week ending Apr. 13, 1918 of work at the Catholic University Annex, Offensive Chemical Research Division, War Gas Investigations, BOM, American University Experiment Station—Washington, DC, Apr. 15, 1918, 173, L. Philip Reiss Collection.
Lewis was able: Joel A. Vilensky, The Dew of Death (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 23.
The first reports: Wilder Bancroft, Index to Reports, Aug. 1, 1918, BOM, Semi-Monthly Reports, finding aid A1, entry 48, box 113, NACP.
Another early report: Preliminary Report on Lewisite, June 25, 1918, Medical Advisory Board Minutes and Reports, Frank P. Underhill Papers, numbered folder 80–106, group no. 514, box 6, Yale University Library Manuscript Collections.
On May 24: “Surgeon’s Morning Report for May 24, 1918,” May 25, 1918, “Records Relating to War Chemical and Gas Investigations, 1918–1919,” BOM records, finding aid A1, Entry 80, box 1, NACP.
The numbers grew: Ibid., June 6, 1918.
Lewis himself was o
ne: “Lewis Tells of Perils of Gas Research Work.”
Despite the injuries: Report to the Secretary of the Interior on the Research Work of the Bureau of Mines on War Gas Investigations, July 1, 1917 to May 15, 1918, 24 (64), L. Philip Reiss Collection.
On May 1: Ibid., 21 (61).
Walter Scheele’s new life: Warren Grimes report for Apr. 15, 1918, Dr. Walter Scheele: German Matter.
Grimes went to the office: Employee list, Kaolin Products Corp., Jones Point, NY, Investigative Case Files of the BOI, 1908–1922, NARA M1085, OGF, 1909–21, case no. 8000-925, roll 279, NACP.
Fire him: Grimes report for Apr. 8, 1918, written Apr. 22, 1918, Dr. Walter Scheele: German Matter.
Grimes insisted that agents: Grimes report for Apr. 12, 1918, written Apr. 22, 1918.
The doctor spoke freely: Warren W. Grimes, Memorandum for the Files, Apr. 23, 1918, Investigative Case Files of the BOI, 1908–1922, NARA M1085, OGF, 1909–21, case no. 8000-925, roll 279, NACP.
Grimes reveled in his job: Letter from Grimes to Bielaski, Apr. 8, 1918, 3, Investigative Case Files of the BOI, 1908–1922, NARA M1085, OGF, 1909–21, case no. 8000-925, roll 279, NACP.
At week’s end: Letter to Special Agent Rice from Div. Supt. Charles DeWoody, Apr. 13, 1918, Investigative Case Files of the BOI, 1908–1922, NARA M1085, OGF, 1909–21, case no. 8000-925, roll 279, NACP.
DeWoody, however, was irate: Letter from Charles DeWoody to A. Bruce Bielaski, May 2, 1918, Investigative Case Files of the BOI, 1908–1922, NARA M1085, OGF, 1909–21, case no. 8000-925, roll 279, NACP.
Accusations of fraud: “Oil Shareholders to Quiz Promoter,” New York Times, Apr. 14, 1918, 20.
about angry shareholders: Letter from William Offley to A. Bruce Bielaski, Apr. 16, 1918, Investigative Case Files of the BOI, 1908–1922, NARA M1085, OGF, 1909–21, case no. 8000-16110, roll 473, NACP.
A new allegation: Memorandum from A. Bruce Bielaski to Mr. Offley, Apr. 6, 1918, Investigative Case Files of the BOI, 1908–1922, NARA M1085, OGF, 1909–21, case no. 8000-12490, roll 335, NACP.
Then he had managed: Personal and confidential letter from DeWoody to A. Bruce Bielaski, Apr. 18, 1918, Investigative Case Files of the BOI, 1908–1922, NARA M1085, OGF, 1909–21, case no. 8000-16110, roll 473, NACP.
Worried anew that Levering could: Letter from A. Bruce Bielaski to Charles DeWoody, Apr. 8, 1918, Personal and confidential letter from DeWoody to A. Bruce Bielaski, Apr. 18, 1918, Investigative Case Files of the BOI, 1908–1922, NARA M1085, OGF, 1909–21, case no. 8000-16110, roll 473, NACP.
DeWoody dispatched investigators: Report from Agent W. B. Matthews, In re: Richmond Levering (Confidential), Apr. 26, 1918, Investigative Case Files of the BOI, 1908–1922, NARA M1085, OGF, 1909–21, case no. 8000-97452, roll 473, NACP.
“If ever there was”: BOI report from Agent Leonard M. Stern, In re: Richmond Levering—Investigation, May 20, 1918, Investigative Case Files of the BOI, 1908–1922, NARA M1085, OGF, 1909–21, case no. 8000-97452, roll 473, NACP.
“A bad nickel”: Report from Agent W. B. Matthews, In re: Richmond Levering (Confidential), Apr. 22, 1918, 3, Investigative Case Files of the BOI, 1908–1922, NARA M1085, OGF, 1909–21, case no. 8000-97452, roll 473, NACP.
“From one or two experiences”: Letter from Division Superintendent Charles DeWoody to A. Bruce Bielaski, May 8, 1918, 2, Investigative Case Files of the BOI, 1908–1922, NARA M1085, OGF, 1909–21, case no. 8000-97452, roll 473, NACP.
Though more than a dozen: Van H. Manning, Historical Report to the Secretary of the Interior on the Origin and Development of the Research Work of the Bureau of Mines on Gases Used in Warfare, Feb. 1, 1917, to Mar. 1, 1918, RG 70, NACP.
There was a growing recognition: Minutes of procurement meeting, May 30, 1918, “Cotton Seed Hulls, Fillings etc,” Technical Document Files, 1917–1920, CWS, RG 175, finding aid PL-8, entry 7, box 6, NACP.
Recalled from France: “March to Make Changes,” New York Times, Mar. 2, 1918, 2.
This scattered domestic structure: Army Reorganization: Hearings before the Committee on Military Affairs, U.S. House of Representatives, 66th Congress, 1st session, on HR 7925, A Bill to Establish a Department of Aeronautics and for Other Purposes, 58 (Sept. 5, 1919) (statement of Chief of Staff Peyton March).
On Saturday, May 18: Army and Navy News, Washington Herald, May 18, 1918, 4.
Even before he returned: “Many Generals Affected by Big Army Shake-Up,” Washington Times, Jan. 2, 1918, 1.
He took up residence: Charleston, South Carolina, city directory, 1918, 466.
“Never will the brotherhood”: “‘Might’ Only Salvation of Nation, Declares Gen. Sibert,” Chattanooga News, Apr. 19, 1918, 16.
On May 11, 1918: Memorandum from Peyton C. March to Adjutant General, May 11, 1918, Correspondence of War College Division and Related General Staff Offices, 1903–19, WDG, RG 165, microfilm publication M1024, reel 306, NACP.
Sibert left Charleston: “Death Toll Grows from Influenza,” Evening Star, Oct. 9, 1918, 18.
When the War Department: “Gen. Sibert in New Post,” Washington Post, May 20, 1918, 6.
Fries was pleased: Letter from Amos Fries to Bessie Fries, May 25, 1918, Amos A. Fries Papers, 1896–1953.
“The gas service”: Ibid., May 20, 1918.
Fries had been egging on: D. W. Ketcham, Memorandum for Chief of Staff, Subject: Chemical Service, National Army, Feb. 9, 1918, Correspondence of War College Division and Related General Staff Offices, 1903–19, WDG, RG 165, microfilm publication M1024, reel 306, NACP.
Baker asked for a conference: Letter from Secretary of War Newton Baker to Interior Secretary Franklin Lane, May 21, 1918, War Gas Investigations Reports and Other Records, BOM, RG 70, finding aid A-1, entry 46, box 110, NACP.
One of the most stubborn: Van H. Manning, Memorandum Regarding Conference Held in the Office of the Secretary of War, from 3:00 p.m. to 4:45 p.m., May 25, 1918, War Gas Investigations Reports and Other Records, BOM, RG 70, finding aid A-1, entry 46, box 110, NACP.
Chapter Eleven: “He Who Gasses Last, Gasses Best”
Night fell over Chaumont: Addison diary entry, June 6, 1918.
The very first one: Emma Higginbottom died on May 4, 1918, https://www .findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=166998399&ref=acom.
The letter was dated: Higginbottom diary entry, May 29, 1918.
He left at about one-thirty: Report on CWS operations at the front, June 19, 1918, 4, AEF General Headquarters, G-3 Reports, Secret Correspondence, Records of the AEF (World War I), RG 120, finding aid NM-91, entry 268, box 3173, NACP.
The dugouts were tucked: Higginbottom diary entry, June 7, 1918.
He slept late: Ibid., June 9, 1918.
Addison’s training hadn’t prepared him: Addison diary entry, June 12, 1918.
When the firefight slowed: Ibid., June 9, 1918.
Higgie attended: Addison diary entry, June 16, 1918; Higginbottom diary entry, June 16, 1918.
Addison waited in a dugout: Addison diary entry, June 18, 1918.
As zero hour approached: Higginbottom diary entry, June 18, 1918.
Farther back, Addison watched: Addison diary entry, June 18, 1918.
Company A’s show: Report on CWS operations at the front. Operation by 30th Engineers, June 22, 1918, Special Report, First Gas Regiment Operations, 18 June–11 Nov. 1918, First Gas Regiment Collection, CCM.
Addison and Higgie lay: Higginbottom diary entry, June 19, 1918.
“A few days ago”: Letter from Amos Fries to Bessie Fries, June 21, 1918, Amos A. Fries Papers, 1896–1953.
The show caused at least: Report on CWS operations at the front.
On one night: Special report on operations of 30th Engineers, June 18, 1918, CCM.
Finding Fries fit: Calomel, which Fries took for his digestion, was eventually found to cause liver damage as well as other permanent injury.
He was awaiting word: Memorandum from Chief of Gas Service Fries to Chief of Staff, AEF, Gas Program, Appendix
A, text of proposed telegram, AEF General Headquarters, G-3 Reports, Secret Correspondence, Records of the AEF (World War I), RG 120, entry 268, finding aid NM-91, box 3141, NACP.
But the day he wrote: Letter from Amos Fries to Bessie Fries, June 21, 1918, Amos A. Fries Papers, 1896–1953.
He was also extremely pleased: Ibid., June 23, 1918.
“To militarize the body”: “The War Gas Controversy,” New York Times, June 7, 1918, 12.
On June 25: Woodrow Wilson, Executive Order, June 25, 1918, War Gas Investigations, Reports and Other Records, BOM, RG 70, finding aid A-1, entry 46, box 110, NACP.
Secretary of War Newton Baker: Newton Baker, letter to Woodrow Wilson, June 25, 1918, War Gas Investigations, Reports and Other Records, BOM, RG 70, finding aid A-1, entry 46, box 110, NACP.
“I want, however, to express”: Woodrow Wilson, letter to Van Manning, June 26, 1918, War Gas Investigations, Reports and Other Records, BOM, RG 70, finding aid A-1, entry 46, box 110, NACP.
Privately, Manning was surprised: Letter from John Johnston to George Hale, June 29, 1918, NAS-NRC, Central File, 1914–1918, National Academy of Sciences Archives.
Despite Manning’s bruised ego: Letter from Van Manning to President Woodrow Wilson, June 29, 1918, War Gas Investigations, Reports and Other Records, BOM, RG 70, finding aid A-1, entry 46, box 110, NACP.
He extended no such niceties: Letter from Van Manning to William Sibert, June 29, 1918, War Gas Investigations, Reports and Other Records, BOM, RG 70, finding aid A-1, entry 46, box 110, NACP.
Telegrams and letters of condolence: Letter from to W. R. Ingalls to Van H. Manning, July 1, 1918, War Gas Investigations, Reports and Other Records, BOM, RG 70, finding aid A-1, entry 46, box 110, NACP.
“I can appreciate”: Letter from F. S. Peabody to Van H. Manning, July 1, 1918, War Gas Investigations, Reports and Other Records, BOM, RG 70, finding aid A-1, entry 46, box 110, NACP.
It was a front-page story: “1,700 Chemists Employed for Gas Service,” Washington Herald, June 29, 1918, 1.
“an eminent engineer”: “Sibert and the Chemists,” New York Times, June 30, 1918, 22.
The War Department released: “Defenders of the Country,” Yorkville (SC) Enquirer, June 18, 1918, 1.