by Gary J. Bass
8. Guha, India After Gandhi, pp. 414–15. Jayakar, Indira Gandhi, pp. 122–33. For an astute profile of Indira Gandhi, see Patrick French, India: A Portrait (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2011), pp. 34–46.
9. Jayakar, Indira Gandhi, pp. 146–47.
10. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 167, Haksar to Narain, 24 February 1971. On communal worries and foreign policy, see Surjit Mansingh, India’s Search for Power: Indira Gandhi’s Foreign Policy, 1966–1982 (New Delhi: Sage, 1984), pp. 205–13. For important work on the dynamics of Hindu-Muslim violence in India, see Ashutosh Varshney, Ethnic Conflict and Civic Life: Hindus and Muslims in India (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2003); Steven Wilkinson, Votes and Violence: Electoral Competition and Ethnic Violence in India (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004); Martha C. Nussbaum, The Clash Within: Democracy, Religious Violence, and India’s Future (Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2007); Sen, Argumentative Indian, pp. 207–11; Kanchan Chandra, “Civic Life or Economic Interdependence?” Commonwealth and Comparative Politics, vol. 39, no. 1 (2001), pp. 110–18; Paul R. Brass, The Production of Hindu-Muslim Violence in Contemporary India (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2003); and Gopal Krishna, “Communal Violence in India,” Economic and Political Weekly, vol. 20, no. 3 (19 January 1985), pp. 117–31.
11. Anatol Lieven, Pakistan: A Hard Country (New York: PublicAffairs, 2011), p. 21. J. F. R. Jacob, Surrender at Dacca: Birth of a Nation (New Delhi: Manohar, 1997), p. 30. The Indian government also redrew the border of Punjab to turn it into a federal state for the Sikhs. (Guha, India After Gandhi, pp. 406–9.) India often blamed the insurgencies on Chinese and Pakistani support for the rebels (Dhar, Indira Gandhi, the “Emergency,” and Indian Democracy, pp. 151, 154). See Ashutosh Varshney, “India, Pakistan, and Kashmir,” Asian Survey, vol. 31, no. 11 (November 1991), pp. 997–1019; Sumit Ganguly, “Explaining the Kashmir Insurgency,” International Security, vol. 21, no. 2 (autumn 1996), pp. 76–107; and Paul R. Brass, “The Punjab Crisis and the Unity of India,” in Kohli, ed., India’s Democracy, pp. 169–213.
12. Guha, India After Gandhi, pp. 438–40. Jayakar, Indira Gandhi, pp. 146–47, 155–59. Ashis Nandy, “Indira Gandhi and the Culture of Indian Politics,” At the Edge of Psychology: Essays in Politics and Culture (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1980), pp. 112–30. Gandhi’s Congress was known as Congress (R), while her rivals had Congress (O).
13. Guha, India After Gandhi, p. 497, 515. Ved Mehta, Portrait of India (New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1970), pp. 545–46. She tried to get rid of Soviet atlases that did not show India’s borders in accordance with the official Indian view, and endorsed blacking out similarly offending maps in the Encyclopedia Britannica (NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 227, Gandhi note, “Soviet Maps,” n.d. 1970 or 1971). See A. G. Noorani, “Map Fetish,” Frontline, 14–27 January 2012. Tharoor, Reasons of State, pp. 54–56.
14. White House tapes, Oval Office 611-21, 2 November 1971, 12:47–1:13 p.m. Frank, Indira, pp. 312–14, 333. Ramachandra Guha, “The Men in Indira’s Life,” Times of India, 13 May 2007. Dhar, Indira Gandhi, the “Emergency,” and Indian Democracy, pp. 117–19, 124. Guha, India After Gandhi, p. 435. Haksar was also remarkably good at keeping documents, which makes his papers one of the preeminent sources on this era (Guha, India After Gandhi, pp. 435, 560).
15. P. N. Haksar, One More Life (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1990), vol. 1, pp. xii, 18.
16. Haksar, One More Life, vol. 1, pp. 120, 6, 101, 28–29, 83. P. N. Haksar, Premonitions (Bombay: Interpress, 1979), p. 231.
17. Haksar, Premonitions, pp. 231–32. Haksar, One More Life, vol. 1, p. 30. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 167, Nehru to Kher, 3 July 1952.
18. NMML catalogue, list no. 389. Guha, India After Gandhi, p. 435. In a fit of pique at not being given a suitable rank, he once quit the foreign service, and had to be personally cajoled back into government by Nehru (NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 167, Nehru to Kher, 23 June 1952). Dhar, Indira Gandhi, the “Emergency,” and Indian Democracy, p. 143. Frank, Indira, pp. 161, 313.
19. Guha, India After Gandhi, pp. 433–34. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 171, Haksar notes for constitutional debate, August 1971. See P. N. Haksar, Contemplations on the Human Condition: Selected Writings, Speeches and Letters, ed. Subrata Banerjee (Chandigarh, India: Centre for Research and Industrial Development, 2004), vol. 1, pp. 125–34.
20. Tharoor, Reasons of State, pp. 141–45.
21. Dhar, Indira Gandhi, the “Emergency,” and Indian Democracy, pp. 119, 143, 160–61.
22. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 163, Haksar to Gandhi, 10 January 1971; NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 163, Gandhi to Bandaranaike, revised draft, n.d. January 1971. FRUS, Jha-Kissinger memcon, 25 August 1971, p. 368. Haksar, Contemplations on the Human Condition, pp. 224–42, 379–80. Dhar, Indira Gandhi, the “Emergency,” and Indian Democracy, p. 113. As Ramachandra Guha hilariously puts it, “His political views were those of the left wing of the British Labour Party, c. 1945” (India After Gandhi, p. 435). Dhar, Indira Gandhi, the “Emergency,” and Indian Democracy, p. 160.
23. Dhar, Indira Gandhi, the “Emergency,” and Indian Democracy, pp. 139–40. Jayakar, Indira Gandhi, pp. 138–41, 150–51. Kux, Estranged Democracies, pp. 248–61. Vojtech Mastny, “The Soviet Union’s Partnership with India,” Journal of Cold War Studies, vol. 12, no. 3 (summer 2010), pp. 64–67. See Raghunath Ram, “Soviet Policy Towards India from the Tashkent Conference to the Bangladesh War,” International Studies, vol. 22, no. 4 (1985), pp. 353–68; Ashok Kapur, “Indian Security and Defense Policies Under Indira Gandhi,” Journal of Asian and African Studies, vol. 22, nos. 3–4 (1987), pp. 176–93. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 203, Kosygin-Singh conversation, 8 June 1971.
24. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 163, notes for Gandhi speech in Uttar Pradesh, 21 January 1971. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 163, Haksar to Gandhi, 6 January 1971. Haksar later said that Nixon “lacked moral principles,” while Kissinger was “an egomaniac who fancied himself another Metternich” (Frank, Indira, pp. 336–37).
25. Guha, India After Gandhi, pp. 515–16. Tharoor, Reasons of State, p. 59. In August 1969, she had a favorable rating of 71 percent, and 64 percent in December 1970–February 1971, although Indian polls in this period are not especially reliable.
26. Election Commission of India, Statistical Report on General Elections, 1971 to the Fifth Lok Sabha (New Delhi: Election Commission of India, 1973), vol. 1, p. 4.
27. NSC Files, Box 134, Kissinger Office Files, Country Files—Middle East, Gandhi toast, 4 November 1971. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 163, notes for Gandhi speech in Uttar Pradesh, 21 January 1971. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 163, Haksar to Gandhi, 14 January 1971. Guha, India After Gandhi, pp. 445–47. Jayakar, Indira Gandhi, pp. 160–61.
28. Dhar, Indira Gandhi, the “Emergency,” and Indian Democracy, pp. 134, 146, 232–33. Guha, India After Gandhi, pp. 446–49. Jayakar, Indira Gandhi, pp. 160–61. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 203, Kosygin-Singh conversation, 8 June 1971. See R. L. Gupta, Politics of Commitment (New Delhi: Trimurti Publications, 1972); Suresh K. Tameri, The Wonder Elections 1971 (New Delhi: Vivek Publishing House, 1971). NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 229, Schanberg to S. K., n.d. See FRUS, vol. E-7, White House tapes, Oval Office 521-13, 15 June 1971, 5:13–5:40 p.m.
29. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 166, Gandhi statement in Lok Sabha, 24 May 1971.
30. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 169, Haksar notes, 15 July 1971. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 165, Haksar to Dhar, 7 April 1971. Guha, India After Gandhi, pp. 443–44. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 163, Haksar to Gandhi, 6 January 1971. H. Balakrishnan, “From Naxalbari to Nalgonda,” The Hindu Magazine, 5 December 2004. See Sukhwant Singh, India’s Wars Since Independence: The Liberation of Bangladesh (New Delhi: Vikas, 1980), vol. 1, p. 6. Maoist guerrillas are still active in parts of India to this day (see Aman Sethi, “The Bloody Crossroads,�
� Caravan, 1 May 2011; Arundhati Roy, Walking with the Comrades [New York: Penguin, 2012]).
31. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 169, Haksar notes, 15 July 1971. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 163, Haksar to Gandhi, 27 January 1971. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 167, Gandhi to Giri, Haksar draft, February 1971.
32. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 227, Dhavan to Gandhi, 19 March 1971. His italics. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 227, Jha to Kaul, 12 March 1971.
33. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 167, Jha to Kaul, 22 December 1970.
34. MEA, HI/1012/32/71, Sen Gupta to Acharya, 20 January 1971. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 220, R&AW report, “Threat of a Military Attack or Infiltration Campaign by Pakistan,” January 1971. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 203, Kosygin-Singh conversation, 8 June 1971. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Bush to Rogers, 2 April 1971, airgram A-499, for Sen note verbale to Thant, 30 March 1971.
35. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 163, Haksar to Gandhi, 5 January 1971.
36. Dhar, Indira Gandhi, the “Emergency,” and Indian Democracy, p. 161. Guha, India After Gandhi, p. 452. Tharoor, Reasons of State, pp. 147–48. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 220, R&AW to Haksar, 14 January 1971. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 220, R&AW report, “Threat of a Military Attack or Infiltration Campaign by Pakistan,” January 1971.
37. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 220, R&AW report, “Threat of a Military Attack or Infiltration Campaign by Pakistan,” January 1971. Dhar, Indira Gandhi, the “Emergency,” and Indian Democracy, p. 149.
38. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 167, Haksar to Dhar, 25 February 1971.
39. MEA, HI/1012/32/71, Sen Gupta to Acharya, 20 January 1971.
40. MEA, HI/1012/32/71, Sen Gupta to Acharya, 20 January 1971. MEA, HI/1012/32/71, Sen Gupta to Acharya, 5 February 1971.
41. MEA, HI/1012/31/71, Bakshi to Acharya, 18 March 1971. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 203, Kosygin-Singh conversation, 8 June 1971. MEA, HI/1012/31/71, Bakshi to Acharya, 19 January 1971. See MEA, HI/1012/31/71, Bakshi to Acharya, 2 February 1971; MEA, HI/1012/31/71, Bakshi to Acharya, 18 March 1971. MEA, HI/1012/30/71, Chib to Kaul, 4 March 1971. MEA, HI/1012/30/71, Chib to Kaul, 5 August 1971. Dhar, Indira Gandhi, the “Emergency,” and Indian Democracy, p. 152.
42. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 220, Sadiq to Gandhi, 2 February 1971. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 166, Haksar to Kaul, 22 May 1971. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 167, Haksar to Kaul, 15 February 1971. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 167, Haksar to Gandhi, 5 February 1971. “Hashim Qureshi Formally Charged in 1971 Plane Hijacking Case,” Press Trust of India, 27 December 2002. “Separatist in 1971 Hijacking Surrenders on Return to India,” Associated Press, 30 December 2000. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 167, Gandhi draft statement, 6 February 1971. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 167, Haksar to Gandhi, 24 February 1971. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 167, Yahya to Kosygin, 7 February 1971. NSC Files, Box 625, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. V, Yahya to Nixon, 24 May 1971. MEA, HI/1012/30/71, Chib to Kaul, 4 March 1971. MEA, HI/1012/32/71, Sen Gupta to Acharya, 15 February 1971.
43. MEA, HI/1012/31/71, Bakshi to Acharya, 2 March 1971. See MEA, HI/1012/30/71, Chib to Kaul, 4 March 1971.
44. MEA, HI/1012/30/71, Chib to Kaul, 4 March 1971. MEA, HI/1012/30/71, Chib to Kaul, 8 April 1971.
45. MEA, HI/1012/32/71, Sen Gupta to Acharya, 1 March 1971. See MEA, HI/1012/32, vol. II, East Pakistan Weekly Press Review, 20 February 1971. Dhar, Indira Gandhi, the “Emergency,” and Indian Democracy, p. 151.
46. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 220, R&AW tasking, 2 March 1971.
47. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 227, Jha to Kaul, 12 March 1971.
48. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Sober to Rogers, 15 March 1971, Islamabad 2277. MEA, HI/1012/30/71, Chib to Kaul, 4 March 1971. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 227, Manekshaw to Swaminathan, 22 March 1971. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 220, R&AW report, “Threat of a Military Attack or Infiltration Campaign by Pakistan,” January 1971.
49. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 164, Haksar to Gandhi, 19 March 1971.
CHAPTER 4: “MUTE AND HORRIFIED WITNESSES”
1. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Blood to Rogers, 25 March 1971, Dacca 932.
2. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Blood to Rogers, 25 March 1971, Dacca 942. For a recent similar refusal by South African port workers to unload arms likely to be used against a civilian public, see Celia W. Dugger, “Zimbabwe Arms Shipped by China Spark an Uproar,” New York Times, 19 April 2008.
3. Archer K. Blood, The Cruel Birth of Bangladesh: Memoirs of an American Diplomat (Dacca: University Press of Bangladesh, 2002), pp. 195–96. For corroborating reports from a Ford Foundation official in Dacca, see POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Farland to Rogers, 31 March 1971, Islamabad 2928; POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Farland to Rogers, 1 April 1971, Islamabad 3017.
4. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, McCarthy to Rogers, 27 March 1971, Karachi 646. Simon Dring, “How Dacca Paid for a United Pakistan,” Daily Telegraph, 30 March 1971. G. W. Choudhury, The Last Days of United Pakistan (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1974), pp. 184–85.
5. Today this is the Ruposhi Bangla Hotel, at 1 Minto Road in Dacca.
6. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Blood to Rogers, 27 March 1971, Dacca 949. Blood, Cruel Birth, p. 199. See POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Blood to Rogers, 27 March 1971, Dacca 949. Pakistan formally protested “highly malicious, exaggerated and provocative reports” by All India Radio (POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Farland to Rogers, 28 March 1971, Islamabad 2788).
7. Sydney H. Schanberg, “Sheik Mujib Calls Strike,” New York Times, 26 March 1971. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Blood to Rogers, 27 March 1971, Dacca 950. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, McCarthy to Rogers, 27 March 1971, Karachi 646. Blood, Cruel Birth, p. 199. See POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Smith to Farland, 29 March 1971, State 52825.
8. Blood, Cruel Birth, p. 199. Library of Congress, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Archer Blood interview, 27 June 1989. See POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Farland to Rogers, Islamabad 2824; POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Van Hollen to Farland, 28 March 1971, State 52028; POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Blood to Rogers, 31 March 1971, Dacca 999.
9. Sydney H. Schanberg, “ ‘All Part of a Game’—a Grim and Deadly One,” New York Times, 4 April 1971.
10. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Farland to Rogers, 26 March 1971, Islamabad 2706. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Farland to Rogers, 26 March 1971, Islamabad 2756. See POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Farland to Rogers, 26 March 1971, Islamabad 2757; POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Farland to Rogers, 29 March 1971, Islamabad 2830. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Farland to Rogers, 27 March 1971, Islamabad 2766. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Luppi to Farland, 27 March 1971, Karachi 640. See POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Luppi to Farland, 31 March 1971, Karachi 673; POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Vance to Farland, 31 March 1971, Karachi 673. For Bhutto’s version, see Oriana Fallaci, Interviews with History and Conversations with Power (New York: Rizzoli, 2011), pp. 290–93. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Farland to Rogers, 27 March 1971, Islamabad 2765. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Farland to Rogers, 26 March 1971, Islamabad 2724. See POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Luppi to Farland, 26 March 1971, Karachi 633. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Gordon to Rogers, 26 March 1971, Calcutta 459. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Farland to Rogers, 26 March 1971, Islamabad 2724. Government of Pakistan, The Report of the Hamoodur Rehman Commission of Inquiry into the 1971 War (Lahore: Vanguard, 2001), p. 510.
11. Blood, Cruel Birth, p. 198.
12. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Blood to Rogers, 30 March 1971, Dacca 986. Hamoodur Rehman Commission Report, p. 509. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Blood to Rogers, 27 March 1971, Dacca 949. On continuing persecution at Dacca University, see POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2531, Blood to Rogers, 10 April 1971, Dacca 1246. See POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2531, “India and ‘Bangla Desh,’ ” INR note, 26 April 1971; POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2531, Greene to Rogers, London 3222.
13. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Blood to Farland, 4 April 1971, Dacca 1107. See Simon Dring, “How Dacca Paid for a United
Pakistan,” Daily Telegraph, 30 March 1971. Blood, Cruel Birth, pp. 201–2.
14. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Blood to Rogers, 29 March 1971, Dacca 978. Blood, Cruel Birth, p. 203. See POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Blood to Rogers, 29 March 1971, Dacca 973.
15. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Farland to Rogers, 27 March 1971, Islamabad 2778; POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Sisco to Farland, 26 March 1971, State 51571; POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Sisco to Farland and Keating, 28 March 1971, State 51992. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Bell to Shakespeare, 5 April 1971, Dacca 1126. Blood, Cruel Birth, p. xvi.
16. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Blood to Rogers, 27 March 1971, Dacca 956. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Farland to Rogers, 28 March 1971, Islamabad 2790.
17. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Farland to Rogers, 29 March 1971, Islamabad 2797. For the State Department’s defensive reply, see POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Sisco to Farland, 29 March 1971, State 52804. See MEA, HI/1012/78/71, Jha to Kaul, 7 April 1971.
18. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Farland to Rogers, 29 March 1971, Islamabad 2827. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Farland to Rogers, 29 March 1971, Islamabad 2831. See POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Austin to Shakespeare, 30 March 1971, Islamabad 2852. See also POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Keating to Rogers, 1 April 1971, New Delhi 4743; POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Farland to Rogers, 30 March 1971, Islamabad 2883; POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Sisco to Greene, 27 March 1971, State 51949. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Farland to Rogers, 27 March 1971, Islamabad 2759. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Blood to Rogers, 27 March 1971, Dacca 955. See POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Van Hollen to Farland, 27 March 1971, State 51990. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Loomis to Rogers, 28 March 1971, USIA 4843. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2530, Bell to Shakespeare, 4 April 1971, Dacca 1095. NSC Files, Box H-112, SRG Minutes, SRG meeting, 31 March 1971.