by Gary J. Bass
6. NSC Files, Box 138, Kissinger Office Files, Country Files—Middle East, Hilaly conversation, 5 May 1971. NSA, Haig to Nixon, 5 May 1971.
7. NSC Files, Box 138, Kissinger Office Files, Country Files—Middle East, Kissinger to Farland, 14 May 1971. NSA, Kissinger to Farland, 20 May 1971. Library of Congress, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Farland interview, 31 January 2000. See White House tapes, Oval Office 502-12, 20 May 1971. See NSC Files, Box 138, Kissinger Office Files, Country Files—Middle East, Kissinger to Farland, 14 May 1971. Henry Kissinger, White House Years (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979), p. 722. FRUS, Kissinger-Farland conversation, 7 May 1971, pp. 106–9. See NSA, Kissinger to Nixon, 7 May 1971. On a personal note, Farland groused about living conditions in Pakistan and hoped that he could get a new posting if the China meeting went well.
8. NSC Files, Box 138, Kissinger Office Files, Country Files—Middle East, Nixon note, passed by Kissinger to Hilaly, 10 May 1971. See White House tapes, Oval Office 504-13, 27 May 1971, 2:42–4:26 p.m.; White House tapes, Oval Office 496-9, 19 May 1971, 12:57–1:30 p.m.; White House tapes, Oval Office 501-16, 19 May 1971, 1:50 p.m.; and F. S. Aijazuddin, From a Head, Through a Head, to a Head: The Secret Channel Between the US and China Through Pakistan (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 2000).
9. FRUS, Kissinger-Farland memcon, 7 May 1971, pp. 106–9. NSA, Kissinger-McNamara telcon, 15 May 1971, 10:04 a.m. NSA, Kissinger-McNamara telcon, 21 June 1971, 6:40 p.m. NSA, Kissinger-Connally telcon, 15 May 1971, 10 a.m. See FRUS, Jha-Kissinger memcon, 11 June 1971, 1:03 p.m., pp. 174–75.
10. FRUS, Nixon-Kissinger telcon, 23 May 1971, 2:30 p.m., p. 140.
11. Tad Szulc, “U.S. Military Goods Sent to Pakistan Despite Ban,” New York Times, 22 June 1971, pp. A1, 11. Sydney H. Schanberg, “Kennedy, in India, Terms Pakistan Drive Genocide,” New York Times, 17 August 1971.
12. NSC Files, Box 625, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. IV, Haig to Nixon, 10 May 1971. White House tapes, Oval Office 558-10, 9 August 1971, 5:44–6:18 p.m. NSC Files, Box 759, Presidential Correspondence File, Kissinger to Nixon, 2 July 1971. NSC Files, Box 759, Presidential Correspondence File, Saunders to Kissinger, 24 June 1971. FRUS, Irwin to Nixon, 9 June 1971, pp. 172–74.
13. NSA, Saunders to Kissinger, 18 May 1971. FRUS, SRG meeting, 23 July 1971, pp. 270–83. FRUS, WSAG meeting, 26 May 1971, 4:35–5 p.m., pp. 149–56. See NSC Files, Box 625, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. V, Van Hollen to Farland, 17 May 1971; NSC Files, Box 626, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. VI, Williams to Rogers, 20 August 1971, Islamabad 8534 (the cable is signed Farland, following protocol, but is actually from Williams); NSC Files, Box 626, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. VI, Saunders to Kissinger, 13 August 1971.
14. POL 23-9 PAK, Box 2531, Farland to Rogers, 14 May 1971, Islamabad 4655.
15. White House tapes, Oval Office 520-6, 15 June 1971, 11:02 a.m.–12:34 p.m.
16. NSC Files, Box 625, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. IV, Nixon-Ahmad memcon, 10 May 1971. See NSC Files, Box 625, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. IV, Ahmad-Kissinger memcon, 10 May 1971.
17. FRUS, Farland to Rogers, 22 May 1971, Karachi 1184, pp. 132–36. NSC Files, Box 625, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. V, Farland to Rogers, 22 May 1971, Karachi 1187. This two cables are signed Luppi, as a matter of protocol, since they were sent from Karachi, but they were written by Farland.
18. NSC Files, Box 625, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. V, Farland to Rogers, 5 June 1971, Islamabad 5590. See NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 170, Yahya to Kosygin, 6 August 1971. The bigger problem may have been the exclusion from the amnesty of those who had committed murder, rape, arson, or looting—a category big enough to be readily abused by Pakistani authorities. MEA, HI/1012/30/71, Chib to Kaul, 9 July 1971.
19. NSC Files, Box 759, Presidential Correspondence File, Nixon to Yahya, 28 May 1971, in Rogers to Farland, 28 May 1971, State 95111.
20. FRUS, Yahya to Nixon, 28 June 1971, pp. 208–9. NSC Files, Box 759, Presidential Correspondence File, Yahya to Nixon, 18 June 1971. He added, “There is no justification whatsoever for exploiting human misery for political gains.” (NSC Files, Box 625, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. V, Yahya to Nixon, 24 May 1971. See MEA, HI/1012/30/71, Chib to Kaul, 9 July 1971.) NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Eliot to Kissinger, 21 July 1971.
21. FRUS, Sisco to Rogers, 30 June 1971, pp. 211–12. FRUS, Irwin to Nixon, 9 June 1971, pp. 172–74. FRUS, Kissinger-Sisco telcon, 29 June 1971, 10:40 a.m., pp. 209–11. See FRUS, Sisco to Rogers, 30 June 1971, pp. 211–12. NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Saunders and Kennedy to Kissinger, “Analytical Summary,” 12 July 1971. REF PAK, Box 3008, Stone to Rogers, 11 June 1971, New Delhi 9162. This note was from Galen Stone, the chargé d’affaires.
22. NSC Files, Box 138, Kissinger Office Files, Country Files—Middle East, Zhou to Nixon, 29 May 1971. H. R. Haldeman, The Haldeman Diaries: Inside the Nixon White House (New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons, 1994), 2 June 1971, p. 295.
23. Haldeman, Haldeman Diaries, 3 June 1971, p. 295. NSA, Nixon to Zhou, 4 June 1971. See NSA, Lord to Kissinger, 21 June 1971. White House tapes, Oval Office 505-4, 26 May 1971, 10:03–11:35 a.m.
24. See NSC Files, Box 625, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. V, Saunders to Kissinger, 2 June 1971.
25. FRUS, Keating-Kissinger memcon, 3 June 1971, pp. 163–67.
26. FRUS, vol. E-7, White House tapes, Oval Office 512-4, 4 June 1971, 9:42–9:51 a.m.
27. FRUS, vol. E-7, White House tapes, Oval Office 521-13, 15 June 1971, 5:13–5:40 p.m.
28. Ibid.
29. White House tapes, Oval Office 611-21, 2 November 1971, 12:47–1:13 p.m. FRUS, vol. E-7, White House tapes, Oval Office 523-2, 16 June 1971, 2:58–3:41 p.m. See NSC Files, Box 596, Country Files—Middle East, India, vol. III, Kissinger to Nixon, 16 June 1971.
30. FRUS, vol. E-7, White House tapes, Oval Office 523-2, 16 June 1971, 2:58–3:41 p.m. See NSC Files, Box 596, Country Files—Middle East, India, vol. III, Kissinger to Rogers, 18 June 1971. NMML, Kaul Papers, Subject File 19, part II, Singh briefing in London, n.d. June 1971. See MEA, HI/1012/78/71, Jha to Kaul, 14 July 1971.
31. Tad Szulc, “U.S. Military Goods Sent to Pakistan Despite Ban,” New York Times, 22 June 1971, pp. A1, A11.
32. MEA, HI/1012/78/71, Jha to Kaul, 14 July 1971. MEA, WII/109/13/71, vol. II, “Supply of Arms by USA to Pakistan,” n.d. November 1971. See MEA, HI/1012/78/71, Jha to Kaul, 7 September 1971. The Indian government considered options for intercepting Pakistani shipments, but ruled them out. (MEA, WII/109/13/71, vol. IV, Jagota memorandum, 26 June 1971.) MEA, WII/125/27/71, M.P.’s notices, 23 June 1971. See NMML, Kaul Papers, Subject File 19, part I, Singh-Kissinger meeting, 7 July 1971. MEA, HI/121/13/71, vol. I, Singh statement in Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha, 24 June 1971. MEA, WII/125/112/71, Singh statement to Lok Sabha, 12 July 1971.
33. NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Davis to Irwin, “Military Supply Policy for Pakistan,” 29 July 1971. NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Military Supply, Saunders and Hoskinson to Kissinger, 17 May 1971. NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Saunders and Kennedy to Kissinger, “Military Assistance,” 21 July 1971. FRUS, WSAG meeting, 26 May 1971, 4:35–5 p.m., pp. 149–56.
34. NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Davis to Irwin, “Military Supply Policy for Pakistan,” 29 July 1971. Since April, Pakistan had applied for licenses for military equipment worth almost $25 million, of which about $21 million was Pentagon arms sales. NSC Files, Box 570, Indo-Pak War, South Asia, Kissinger to Nixon, 3 August 1971.
35. NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Eliot to Kissinger, 12 July 1971. Over $18 million of that was from Pentagon foreign military sales to Pakistan, and the remaining $11 million was commercial sales, of spare parts for tanks and armored vehicles, military telephone sets, electronic spares, and aiming devices for fire control systems. One of the Pentagon licenses was
for almost $3 million worth of military ammunition, although that had not shipped yet, so it could be held back. That left about $318,000 worth of ammunition. NSC Files, Box 627, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. VIII, Kissinger to Nixon, “Military Supply to Pakistan,” n.d. November 1971. NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Eliot to Kissinger, 12 July 1971. Of that $15 million, some $13 million was from Pentagon arms sales, and the rest from commercial arms sales. See MEA, WII/121/60/71, McCloskey statement, 27 August 1971. The export licenses were good for one year, so with every passing day there was less equipment that could go to Pakistan (NSC Files, Box 570, Indo-Pak War, South Asia, Kissinger to Nixon, 3 August 1971; FRUS, SRG meeting, 23 July 1971, p. 281).
36. NSC Files, Box 625, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. V, Haig to Kissinger, 27 May 1971. Tim Weiner, “Alexander M. Haig Jr. Dies at 85; Was Forceful Aide to 2 Presidents,” New York Times, 20 February 2010, p. A1. NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Military Supply, Saunders and Hoskinson to Kissinger, 17 May 1971.
37. NSC Files, Box H-058, SRG Meetings, Saunders and Kennedy to Kissinger, “Military Assistance,” 21 July 1971. NSC Files, Box 626, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. VII, Saunders to Kissinger, 1 September 1971.
38. NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Military Supply, Rogers to Nixon, 23 June 1971. NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Military Supply, Haig to Nixon, 25 June 1971. NSC Files, Box 574, Indo-Pak War, South Asian Military Supply, Kissinger to Nixon, 25 June 1971. Kissinger noted that the administration had never tried to hold up U.S. weapons already on its way to Pakistan. See also NSC Files, Box 625, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. V, Farland to Rogers, 25 June 1971, Islamabad 6402; NSC Files, Box 627, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. VIII, Kissinger to Nixon, “Military Supply to Pakistan,” n.d. November 1971.
39. NSA, Kissinger to Farland, n.d. June 1971. NSA, Hilaly to Kissinger, 19 June 1971.
40. NSA, Kissinger to Farland, n.d. June 1971.
41. White House tapes, Oval Office 529-20, 28 June 1971, 10:23–10:51 a.m. Haldeman, Haldeman Diaries, 28 June 1971, p. 307. See NSA, Nixon-Kissinger memcon, 1 July 1971. Richard Nixon, In the Arena: A Memoir of Victory, Defeat, and Renewal (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1990), p. 16. Haldeman, Haldeman Diaries, 10 July 1971, p. 317; 8 July 1971, p. 316.
42. NSC Files, Box 138, Kissinger Office Files, Country Files—Middle East, Farland to Kissinger, 19 May 1971. NSA, Farland to Kissinger, 22 May 1971.
CHAPTER 11: THE EAST IS RED
1. MEA, WII/121/54/71, vol. I, Viets to Sutendra, 2 July 1971. MEA, WII/121/54/71, vol. I, Stone to Menon, 2 July 1971. Henry Kissinger, White House Years (Boston: Little, Brown, 1979), pp. 729, 732. Conrad Black, Richard M. Nixon: A Life in Full (New York: PublicAffairs, 2007), p. 725.
2. Leo J. Daugherty III, The Marine Corps and the State Department: Enduring Partners in United States Foreign Policy, 1798–2007 (Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland, 2009), pp. 211–14.
3. MEA, WII/121/54/71, vol. I, Menon memorandum, 1 July 1971.
4. FRUS, Kissinger-Haksar memcon, 6 July 1971, pp. 220–21.
5. MEA, WII/109/13/71, vol. II, “Supply of Arms by USA to Pakistan,” n.d. November 1971. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 169, Haksar minutes of Kissinger meeting, 6 July 1971. There are two more copies in NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 229. Haksar jotted down his notes after the meeting, although they are not verbatim.
6. FRUS, Kissinger-Haksar memcon, 6 July 1971, pp. 220–21.
7. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 169, Haksar minutes of Kissinger meeting, 6 July 1971. The transcript actually says “whole Roman Empire.” See NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 170, Haksar to Gandhi, 8 August 1971.
8. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 169, Haksar minutes of Kissinger meeting, 6 July 1971. FRUS, Kissinger-Haksar memcon, 6 July 1971, pp. 220–21.
9. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 169, Haksar minutes of Kissinger meeting, 6 July 1971.
10. FRUS, Kissinger-Haksar memcon, 6 July 1971, pp. 220–21.
11. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 169, Haksar minutes of Kissinger meeting, 6 July 1971.
12. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 169, Haksar to Gandhi, 7 July 1971. FRUS, Kissinger-Haksar memcon, 6 July 1971, pp. 220–21.
13. MEA, WII/121/54/71, vol. II, Kissinger’s visit schedule, n.d. July 1971. MEA, WII/125/59/71, Kissinger’s visit to India, n.d. July 1971. MEA, WII/121/54/71, Menon to Singh, 17 July 1971, covering Kissinger minutes, 12:30 p.m., 7 July 1971. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 229, Kissinger-Subramaniam memcon, 7 July 1971. POL INDIA-US, Box 2369, Kissinger-Subramaniam memcon, 7 July 1971. Kissinger, White House Years, pp. 738–39.
14. MEA, WII/121/54/71, vol. II, Menon to Kaul, 5 July 1971. POL 7 US-KISSINGER, Box 2693, Kissinger memorandum, n.d. July 1971. MEA, WII/121/54/71, vol. I, Girilal Jain, “Mr. Kissinger’s Visit,” Times of India, 6 July 1971. MEA, WII/121/54/71, vol. I, Patel to Gandhi, 8 July 1971.
15. POL INDIA-US, Box 2369, Kissinger-academics memcon, 7 July 1971.
16. NSC Files, Box 1025, Presidential/HAK MemCons, Haksar-Kissinger memcon, 7 July 1971, 1:10 p.m. Jagjivan Ram, Four Decades of Jagjivan Ram’s Parliamentary Career (New Delhi: S. Chand, 1977). MEA, WII/121/54/71, Kissinger-Ram meeting, 7 July 1971 (attached to Menon to Singh, 13 July 1971). NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 229, Kissinger-Ram meeting, 7 July 1971.
17. See MEA, HI/121/13/71, vol. I, Singh statement in Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha, 24 June 1971. POL INDIA-US, Box 2369, Singh-Kissinger memcon, 7 July 1971. MEA, WII/121/54/71, Kissinger-Singh meeting, 7 July 1971. NMML, Kaul Papers, Subject File 19, part I, Singh-Kissinger memcon, 7 July 1971. See T. N. Kaul, The Kissinger Years: Indo-American Relations (New Delhi: Arnold-Heinemann, 1980), pp. 37–51, 58–60.
18. NSC Files, Box 1025, Presidential/HAK MemCons, Haksar-Kissinger memcon, 7 July 1971, 1:10 p.m.
19. POL 7 US-KISSINGER, Box 2693, Kissinger memorandum, n.d. July 1971. See NMML, Kaul Papers, Subject File 19, part I, Singh-Kissinger memcon, 7 July 1971.
20. MEA, WII/121/54/71, Kissinger-Ram meeting, 7 July 1971 (attached to Menon to Singh, 13 July 1971). NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 229, Kissinger-Ram meeting, 7 July 1971.
21. For Haksar’s talking points for Gandhi, see NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 169, Haksar to Gandhi, 7 July 1971.
22. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 169, Nixon to Gandhi, 1 July 1971. See NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 169, Haksar to Kaul, 8 July 1971. Keating was upset at not being told what was in Nixon’s letter to Gandhi (POL 15-1 US-NIXON, Box 2708, Keating to Rogers, 12 July 1971, New Delhi 11090).
23. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 225, Gandhi-Kissinger conversation, 7 July 1971. The American notes have Gandhi going further, saying the arms did “not make much practical difference” (POL INDIA-US, Box 2369, Gandhi-Kissinger memcon, 7 July 1971), but the Indian notes do not.
24. POL INDIA-US, Box 2369, Gandhi-Kissinger memcon, 7 July 1971. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 225, Gandhi-Kissinger conversation, 7 July 1971.
25. NSC Files, Box H-052, SRG Meetings, Saunders to Kissinger, 5 March 1971. Kissinger was also personally warned of imminent Pakistani violence by the State Department officials U. Alexis Johnson and Christopher Van Hollen (NSC Files, Box H-112, SRG Minutes, SRG meeting, 6 March 1971, 11:40 a.m.). POL INDIA-US, Box 2369, Gandhi-Kissinger memcon, 7 July 1971.
26. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 225, Gandhi-Kissinger conversation, 7 July 1971.
27. MEA, WII/121/54/71, “Salient Points Mentioned by Dr. Kissinger,” n.d. July 1971.
28. POL INDIA-US, Box 2369, Gandhi-Kissinger memcon, 7 July 1971. The Indian notes omit this embarrassment (NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 225, Gandhi-Kissinger conversation, 7 July 1971).
29. NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 169, Haksar to Jha, 21 July 1971. See P. N. Dhar, Indira Gandhi, the “Emergency,” and Indian Democracy (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 163.
30. POL INDIA-US, Box 2369, Sultan-Kissinger m
emcon, 8 July 1971. See NMML, Haksar Papers, Subject File 169, Haksar to Jha, 17 July 1971. FRUS, SRG meeting, 23 July 1971, pp. 270-83. FRUS, vol. E-7, White House tapes, Oval Office 549-25, 28 July 1971, 4:21–4:54 p.m.
31. POL 7 US-KISSINGER, Box 2693, Kissinger memorandum, n.d. July 1971. See FRUS, Haig to Nixon, n.d. July 1971, p. 235.
32. See Library of Congress, Foreign Affairs Oral History Collection, Joseph Wheeler interview, 17 June 1998, and Robert Mark Ward interview, 27 May 1998.
33. POL INDIA-US, Box 2369, Farland-Kissinger memcon, 8 July 1971.
34. Chuck Yeager and Leo Janos, Yeager: An Autobiography (New York: Bantam, 1985), pp. 306–7, 311–12. POL INDIA-US, Box 2369, Farland-Kissinger memcon, 8 July 1971. NSC Files, Box 571, Indo-Pak War, State Department working group situation report, 5 December 1971.
35. POL INDIA-US, Box 2369, Sultan-Kissinger memcon, 8 July 1971.
36. FRUS, Nixon to Yahya, 1 July 1971, pp. 213–14.
37. For preparations, see NSC Files, Box 625, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. V, Saunders to Kissinger, 11 July 1971. FRUS, Kissinger to Haig, 9 July 1971, pp. 242–43. Kissinger, White House Years, p. 861.
38. White House tapes, Oval Office 558-10, 9 August 1971, 5:44–6:18 p.m. FRUS, SRG meeting, 23 July 1971, pp. 270–83. Kissinger, White House Years, p. 861.
39. Kissinger, White House Years, p. 862.
40. Ibid., p. 739. See John H. Holdridge, Crossing the Divide: An Insider’s Account of Normalization of U.S.-China Relations (Lanham, Md.: Rowman & Littlefield, 1997), pp. 52–55.
41. NSC Files, Box 625, Country Files—Middle East, Pakistan, vol. V, Saunders to Kissinger, 11 July 1971. His italics.
42. Library of Congress, Association for Diplomatic Studies and Training, Foreign Affairs Oral History Project, Winston Lord interview, 28 April 1998. Lord sometimes claims that he ran to the front of the plane (James Mann, About Face: A History of America’s Curious Relationship with China, from Nixon to Clinton [New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1998], pp. 3–4), but admits here that that is an exaggeration. NSA, Kissinger to Nixon, 14 July 1971. Kissinger, White House Years, pp. 740–42. See Huang Hua, Memoirs (Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 2008), pp. 224–26; Ji Chaozu, The Man on Mao’s Right: From Harvard Yard to Tiananmen Square, My Life Inside China’s Foreign Ministry (New York: Random House, 2008), pp. 245–48; Walter Isaacson, Kissinger: A Biography (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992), pp. 343–49.