desiccation, and preservation of DNA, 65
development, embryonic and prenatal, 13, 79–80, 151–53, 158; in birds, 153–55, 158. See also gestation
diet, 75, 137
dinosaurs, 1–2, 61, 128
disease: accidental de-extinction of, 193–94; genome editing as medical therapy, 120, 122
DNA: in cells, 62; degradation after death of organism, 77–78; extracting ancient, 51–53; PCR (polymerase chain reaction) and amplification of, 58–61; repair, 119– 20; structure of, 40, 40–41. See also ancient DNA
DNA, preservation of: in amber, insert, 45, 51–54, 56–58, 60–61; caves, 64–65, 70–71; climate and, 57, 64–66, 70–71, 83– 84; desiccation and, 65; in mummies, 65, 74, 83–84, 89–91; in permafrost, 64, 68–71, 81–84, 95–96
DNA sequences: composition of, 12–13, 39–41; synthetic, 109–11, 115–17, 120, 122, 135. See also DNA sequencing
DNA sequencing: of ancient DNA, xi, 10–11, 39–45, 53, 56–58, 69–70, 111–15; cost of, DNA sequences, 113, 135; technologies for, 58, 113–14, 135. See also genome sequencing and assembly
dodos, 22–24, 23, 35, 54, 61
dogs, 76; cloning, 81, 93–94, 144–45; mammoth eaten by, 89–90; selective breeding and domestication of, 101–2
Dolgans (Siberian reindeer herders), 96–98
Dolly the sheep, 8, 44–45, 78–81
domestication, 58, 170; selective breeding and, 100–102, 204
donkeys, 161–62
Donlan, Josh, 162–63, 188
double-clutching, 176
ducks, 157–58
dugongs, as surrogate hosts, 46, 152
ecological resurrection, as goal of de-extinction, 10, 131, 187–88
ecosystems: adaptation to loss of species, 30, 32, 36–39, 130, 201; ecological resurrection as goal of de-extinction, 10, 131, 187–88; interactions among species, 201; invasive species and extinction, 34–35; living species as proxies for extinct species in, 160–63; mammoth reintroduction and, 14–15, 164–65; reintroduction of animals to, xi, 27–30, 38, 191, 199–201, 207; unpredictable impacts of de-extinction on, xi, 9, 32, 36–37, 188
ecotourism, 17, 20
ectogenesis. See artificial wombs
egg cells, 79; elephants as egg donors, 149–50; and nuclear transfer, 46, 78, 147–48
Ehrlich, Paul, 192–93, 205
elephants: captivity and, 171–72; cold-tolerance and, 13–14, 46, 129, 163; as egg donors, 149–50; as endangered, 149–50; genetic engineering to recreate mammoth-like traits, 129, 207; genomics of, 132; introduction to North America, 162; as living relatives of mammoths, 11–12, 54, 111–13, 112, 132; as proxies for mammoths in ecosystem, 163–65; social behavior of, 180; as source of genetic material, 119; as surrogates for mammoths, 107, 150–51
endangered species: cloning of, 137–38; de-extinction as political threat to, 203; GMOs as, 185–87; limited genetic diversity linked to low populations, 9
Endangered Species Act, 185–86
enucleation, 79
epigenome, 13, 136–39
ethics, scientific, xii, 115; cloning and, 93–94; and de-extinction, 9, 13–16, 25, 203 (See also risks of de-extinction). See also animal welfare
euchromatin, 114
Extinct DNA Study Group (UC Berkeley), 55–56
extinction: causes of (See extinction, causes of); contemporary age of, 5–7; mass extinction events, 1–2, 6; reversal of (See de-extinction); trophic cascade and, 130
extinction, causes of: cataclysmic events, 2–3; climate change, 1–5, 7, 191; habitat destruction, 34–35, 180; humans or human activity, 4–5, 7, 22–24, 26, 32–36, 142; introduction of predators, parasites, and competitors, 34–36; overexploitation, 4–5, 22, 33–34, 36, 142, 180, 185, 197–98
fear: of de-extinction, xi, 127, 193–204; of extinction as concept, xi, 6
Fernández-Arias, Alberto, 143–44
first phase of de-extinction, 11, 15, 116–17, 166
fish, 157
Fisher, Dan, 75, 90–91, 96
fossils: dating, 66–68; as DNA sources, 63–70, 113–14 (See also amber, DNA preserved in)
Fox, David, 75
foxes, 27, 170
Froese, Duane, 69
frogs, 8, 53, 80–81, 112–13, 190–91, 200
Frozen Zoo, San Diego, 9
Fulton, Tara, 51–52
funding for de-extinction projects, 195–97
gametes, 79. See also egg cells; sperm cells
generation time: and candidacy for de-extinction, 50, 107
genes: interaction of, 106
genetically modified organisms (GMOs): as endangered species, 185–87; genome editing and, 120, 182–83; regulation of, 181–87
genetic diversity: and adaptive potential, 167–68; of ancient populations, 66; as consequence of cloning, lack of, 166– 68; in de-extinct species, 166–68, 185; genomic editing and, 166–68
genetic engineering: and adaptation to changing environment, ix–x, 10; of chickens, 156–58; and conservation of threatened species, 205–7; costs of, 110– 11; and creating synthetic life, 109–11; and creation of genetically diverse populations, 166–68; as de-extinction technology, 8, 30, 141; of elephants, 165, 177; and restoration of genetic diversity within a species, 9; selective breeding as, 100–105, 204; technologies for (See primordial germ cell transfer; somatic cell nuclear transfer). See also cloning; genome editing
genome editing, 115–21; CRISPR/Cas9 technology, 121–24, 133–34; as de-extinction technology, 45–46; genetic diversity and, 166–68; and mammoth de-extinction, 45–46, 124, 128, 129, 133, 138, 147–48, 152; medical applications of, 120, 122; “molecular” scissors and, 118–21; primordial germ cells and, 154– 55, 182; and resurrection of traits, 163– 64; selecting gene targets for, 45, 117–19, 131–36, 138–39, 152; somatic cell nuclear transfer and, 129; stem cells and, 123– 24; successful applications of, 120; technology for, 118–21
genome engineering. See genome editing
genomes: components of, 114; of extinct organisms and species, 10–11, 13, 30–31, 39–44, 70–71, 111–15; synthetic, 109–11, 113. See also genome sequencing and assembly
genome sequencing and assembly: of ancient organisms, 39–45, 66; costs of, 110, 113, 135, 196; of horse, ancient, 66; of human, 114, 138; and identification of genes for editing, 138–39; of mammoth, 13, 63, 111–13, 117–18, 132–33, 138; of passenger pigeon, 50, 117, 196; process of, 41–44; technologies for, 41, 109–15. See also DNA sequencing
germ cells, 79
germ cell transfer. See primordial germ cell transfer
gestation, 49; in artificial wombs, 152–53, 195; and de-extinction of mammoths, 49, 107, 151; environmental factors and, 137–38. See also development, embryonic and prenatal; surrogacy
Ghorokov, Vasily, 87
glaciations, 2–7, 167–68
GMOs. See genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
golden toads, 31–32
gold mining, 68–69; and exposure of remains, insert
Göring, Hermann, 102
Goto, Kazufumi, 86–87
Greely, Hank, 115, 192
Gregoriev, Semyon, 94, 96
guars, 142–43
guilt, as motive for de-extinction, 26
Gurdon, John, 80–81
habitat: destruction as cause of extinction, 34–35, 180; as requirement for de-extinction, 20, 24, 25, 35–36, 39, 180, 198–99; and selection of species for de-extinction, 36; suitability for reintroduction and, 39, 163. See also climate
hair as DNA source, 86
Heck, Heinz and Lutz, 102–3
Heck cattle, 102–3
Hedges, Blair, 51–52
hemoglobin, mammoth-specific, 107–8, 123, 124, 131
heterochromatin, 114–15
hominins, 70, 139
homologous recombination, 120
horses, 2–5, 106, 161–62; ancient DNA extracted and sequenced, 66–70; clones, 81; evolution and local extinctions of, 55
human-caus
ed extinction, 4–5, 7, 22–24, 32–36, 142; and guilt as motive for de-extinction, 26
humans: extinction caused by (See human-caused extinction); as lacking in genetic diversity, 168; and manipulation of nature, 204; sequencing of human genome, 114, 138
hunting: as motive for de-extinction, 102; overexploitation as cause of extinction, 4–5, 22, 33–34, 36, 142, 180, 185, 197–98; restrictions on, 37–38; resurrected mammoths, 187
Hwang Insung, 94–95
Hwang Woo-Suk, 81, 93–94
hybrids: brown bear–polar bear, 28–29; dog-wolf-coyote, 28; Florida panther– Texas panther, 167; genomic challenges of, 148; human–Neandertal, 28; ibex-goat, 7, 145–47; mammoth-elephant, 86–87, 126, 129–30; as result of de-extinction, xi, 22, 86–87, 147; and sterility, 127–28
hymen, of elephants, 150–51
ice ages. See glaciations
ice caves, 85, 88, 98
induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), 80–81
invasive species, 171, 198, 199, 202; de-extinct species as, 181–82; and extinctions, 34–35
Iritani, Akira, 8, 86–89, 92–93
island restoration projects, 202–3
J. Craig Venter Institute, 109–11
Jarkov family, 85–86, 96–97
Jarkov mammoth, 85–86, 96–98
Jurassic Park (movie), 45, 56, 112–13
kangaroo rats, 15, 26, 49, 197
Kato, Hiromi, 87–88
Kerkdijk-Otten, Henri, 100–101
keystone species, 26, 30
Khatanga research base, Krasnoyarski Krai district, Siberia, 73–76, 85
Khundi, Yuri, and sons, 89
Klondike gold fields, Yukon, 68–69
lactic acid and mummification, 90–91
Lanza, Robert, 137–38
Lazarev, Petr, 86, 87–88
Lazarus frog de-extinction project, 8, 190
Leitch, George, 22
Linnaeus, Carl, 29
Long Now Foundation, 115
Lyuba mammoth, 89–91
Malolyakovsky Island, 96
mammontelephases, 126–29
Mammoth Creation Project, 86–87
Mammoth Museum, Yakutsk, 86
mammoths: as candidates for de-extinction, ix–x, 11–14, 38–39, 49, 71, 149–50, 151, 164–65; cold-tolerance of, 107–8, 123; ecological reasons for de-extinction of, 49, 164–65; elephants as evolutionary relatives, 11–12, 54, 111–13, 112, 132; elephants as surrogates for, 49, 150–51; genome sequence of, 111–13, 135– 36; recreation of habitat for, 38–39
Mammuthus (organization), 73–74
Martha, the last known passenger pigeon, insert
Mauritian giant tortoise, 202–3
Mayr, Ernst, 28
McGrew, Michael, 158, 191
media, and de-extinction, 125–29, 189–91
megafauna: as candidate species for de-extinction, 24–25, 81–82, 160; and interest in conservation, 197; proxies for extinct, 187–88; role within ecosystem, 165, 195
microbiome, de-extinction of, 13
mitochondrial DNA, 61–62, 62, 71, 86, 111–12, 147–48
moas: as candidate species for de-extinction, 20–22, 24, 31, 158, 182; as genetically modified species, 182; recovery of ancient DNA from, 54–55, 64; skeleton reconstruction, 21; taxonomy of, 31, 54–55
Monbiot, George, 195
motivations for de-extinction, 17–18, 20, 48–50
Mullis, Kary, 58
mummies: DNA preservation in, 65, 74, 83–84, 89–91; the search for, 84–86, 91, 94–98. See also Jarkov mammoth; Lyuba mammoth; Yukagir mammoth
mutations, 120, 123
Mycoplasma mycoides JCVI-syn1.0, 109–10
mythology, mammoths in, 83, 89
National Geographic, 94
Neandertals, 6, 28–29, 42–44, 54, 70, 139
Nenets (Siberian reindeer herders), 89
Nicobar pigeons, 54
noncoding (“junk”) DNA, 45, 134–35
non-homologous end joining, 120
Novak, Ben, 172–73, 190, 196
nuclear genome, 62
nuclear transfer: as de-extinction technology, 144–45, 147; success rates, 127, 143, 167
Orlando, Ludovic, 70, 139
overexploitation, as cause of extinction, 4–5, 22, 33–34, 36, 142, 180, 185, 197–98
Owen, Sir Richard: with moa skeleton, 21
Pääbo, Svante, 42–43
Pasha the dog, 76
passenger pigeons: and Allee effect, 180; as candidates for de-extinction, ix, 9, 16, 32–33, 37–38, 49–50, 71, 115, 153, 178; ecology of, 37–38, 172, 180; engineering using band-tailed pigeon, 155, 177–78, 205; extinction of, 32–33; flock of migrating, 33; homing pigeons as surrogate flocks for, 172–73; leg bones of, insert; Martha, the last known, insert; rewilding and regulation of, 182–87; sequencing the genome of, 50, 117, 196
pathogens: CRISPR technology and, 121–22; de-extinction and risk from, 193–94; genomic editing of, 121–22; recovery of from ancient remains, 43
PCR (polymerase chain reaction), 58–61, 59
Pennsylvania Sate University, 1, 70
permafrost: carbon sequestration and, 165; preservation of DNA and remains in, 64, 68–71, 81–84, 95–96
phases of de-extinction: first phase, 11, 15, 116–17, 166; second phase, 12, 15, 166, 168–69, 191
Phelan, Ryan, 8–9, 49–50, 115, 184, 189–90, 205–6
phenotype, 13, 100, 104, 106, 124, 136; and epigenetics, 136–40
placer mining, 68–69, 77
Pleistocene Park, insert, 8, 38–39, 86, 164–65, 177, 187, 207
polar bears, 28–29, 167–68
population: Allee effect and stability of, 180; defined, 28–30; as defined by the Endangered Species Act, 185–87; genetic diversity within, 100, 104, 138–39; reconstructing the evolutionary history of, 10–11, 55, 66; sustainability and size of, 166–69, 179–80, 198
predators: de-extinction of, 199; ecosystem restoration and introduction of, 162–63; ecosystem role of, 26–27
prenatal development. See development, embryonic and prenatal
preservation of DNA. See DNA, preservation of
Pribilof Islands, 2
primordial germ cell transfer, 79, 154–58, 182
protection. See regulation
public opinion, 9, 127–30, 162–63, 203; about environmental conservation, 197, 207; about genetically modified organisms, 181–87; about reintroduced species, 200; about rewilding, 162–63, 187– 88; appeal as criterion for selection of de-extinction candidates, 49–50, 197; fear of de-extinction, 204; media and, 189–92
pygmy mammoths, 152
quaggas, 54
radiocarbon dating, 66–67
recombination, 104; homologous, 120; sexual reproduction and, 104
re-extinction, x, 12; accidental, 172–73, 179; as method to correct errors, 199–200
regulation: of GMOs, 181–87; and protection of de-extinct species, 22, 38, 184– 87; and protection of endangered species, 36, 184–87, 185; of reintroduced species, 162, 181–86, 200–201
reintroduction: of captive-bred animals, 176–81; challenges of, 37–38, 47–48, 173, 178–79, 181; cost of, 196–97; of de-extinct animals, 12, 47–48, 130–31, 166–69, 195– 97; and environmental impact, 20, 27, 36–37, 199–201; as goal of de-extinction, 12, 130–31; and regulation post-release, 162, 181–86, 200–201; of wolves, 27–28. See also rewilding
reproduction, sexual: and captive breeding, 169–72; and homologous recombination, 120; rearing offspring, 168–69; selective breeding, 100–105, 170; sterility of hybrids, 127–28; surrogacy and, 31, 46–47
retro-breeding. See back-breeding
Revive & Restore, 8–9, 48–49, 115, 123, 184, 196
rewilding: as conservation tool, 187–88, 202; of Europe, plan for, 131, 195; of feral horses in the Americas, 55; of North America, plan for, 159–63; public opinion about, 162–63, 187–88. See also reintroduction
rhinos, woolly, 177
/> risks of de-extinction, xi, 188, 189, 201, 207
Roslin Institute, 44–45, 78–79, 81, 156, 158
Rountrey, Adam, 75
Ryder, Oliver, 9
Savage, Jay, 31–32
science fiction and de-extinction, ix–x
sea turtles, 178–79
second phase of de-extinction, 12, 15, 166, 168–69, 191
selective breeding, 170; and back-breeding, 100–107; and domestication, 101–2, 204; as genetic engineering, 204; and length of gestation period, 107
sequencing DNA. See DNA sequencing
Siberia: fossil hunting in, insert
Sixth Extinction, 5–6, 5–7
skin, as source of DNA, 94–95
Snyder, Noel, 115
somatic cell nuclear transfer, 45, 77–81, 78, 143–45, 147–48; genome editing/engineering and, 129. See also nuclear transfer
somatic cells, 79; and development of cell lines, 92; reprogramming and, 145. See also somatic cell nuclear transfer
Sooam Biotech Research Foundation, 94–95
South Korea, 93
Spanish ibex, insert. See also bucardos (Pyrenean ibex)
species, concept, 19, 28–30
species confusion, 179
sperm cells, 79; viability of frozen, 86–87
Steller’s sea cows, 33–34, 34, 46, 197
stem cells, 79–81, 89, 94, 145; and genome editing, 123–24; medical applications of, 80, 94
steppe bison, 2–5, 12, 28, 68–69
Stiller, Mathias, 51–53
subspecies: as candidates for de-extinction, 27–30; geographic barriers and emergence of, 29–30
surrogacy, 31, 46, 78–79, 81, 151–52; elephants as hosts, 49, 150–51; evolutionary distance as factor, 147; size differences as factor, 46, 151–52
Suzuki, Naoki, 88, 90
Sweeny, Mike, 192
synthetic life, 110–11
Tasmanian tigers, 17, 48
taxonomic system, 29
TEDx De-Extinction, 9, 48–49, 172–73, 189–91
Temple, Stanley, 191
tephrochronology, 67–69
Thismia americana, 17
thyroid-stimulation hormone receptor (TSHR), 58–60
Tikhonov, Alexei, 87, 90
tortoises, 160–61, 178–79, 202–3
traits: back-breeding for specific, 102–5; gene expression and multiple, 105–6
transcription activator-like effector nucleases (TALENs), 118–21, 119
transcription factors, 80–81
trophic cascade, 130
How to Clone a Mammoth Page 24