triumph The greatest of days for the successful general was the day upon which he triumphed. By the time of Marius and Sulla, a general had to have been hailed on the field as imperator by his troops, after which he was obliged to petition the Senate to grant him his triumph; only the Senate could sanction it, and sometimes—though not often—unjustifiably withheld it. The triumph itself was a most imposing parade consisting of musicians, dancers, wagons filled with spoils, floats depicting scenes from the campaign, the Senate in procession, prisoners and liberated Romans, and the army. The parade began in the Villa Publica on the Campus Martius, and followed a prescribed route thereafter—a special gate in the Servian Walls called the Porta Triumphalis, into the Velabrum, the Forum Boarium, and the Circus Maximus, after which it went down the Via Triumphalis and turned-into the Via Sacra of the Forum Romanum. It terminated on the Capitol at the foot of the steps of the temple of Jupiter Optimus Maximus. The triumphing general and his lictors went into the temple and offered the god their laurels of victory, after which a triumphal feast was held in the temple.
triumphator The name given to the triumphing general.
tunic Tunica. The tunic was the basic item of clothing for almost all ancient Mediterranean peoples, including the Greeks and the Romans. As worn by a Roman of the time of Marius and Sulla, the tunic’s body was rectangular in shape, without darts to confine it at the sides of the chest; the neck was probably cut on a curve for comfort rather than kept as a straight edge contiguous with the shoulders. The sleeves may have been woven as rectangular projections from the shoulders, or they may have been set in. It was not beyond the skill of ancient tailors to set in sleeves, and some people wore long sleeves, which had to be set in. The statues do not indicate that the tunics of men important enough to have statues were simply joined up the sides with a gap left at the top for the arms to go through. The sleeves of the tunics shown on statues of generals in particular look like proper short sleeves. The tunic was either belted with leather or girdled with a cord; the Roman tunic was always worn longer at the front than at the back by about three inches (75 mm). Those of the knight’s census wore a narrow purple stripe down the right side of the tunic, those of the senator’s census a wide purple stripe. The stripe may also have run down the left side of the tunic as well. I do not believe the stripe was a single one at mid-chest. A wall painting from Pompeii displaying a man wearing the toga praetexta shows a wide purple stripe going down the tunic from the right shoulder.
Tusculum A town on the Via Latina some fifteen miles from Rome. It was the first Latin town to receive the Roman citizenship, in 381 b.c., and was always unswervingly loyal to Rome. Cato the Censor came from Tusculum, where his family had possessed the Public Horse of Roman knighthood for at least three generations.
Vaticanus Both a plain, the Campus Vaticanus, and a hill, the Mons Vaticanus. They lay on the northern bank of the Tiber opposite the Campus Martius. At the time of Marius and Sulla, the plain was used for market gardening, the hill behind it for no published purpose.
Venus Libitina Goddess of the life force, Venus had many aspects. Venus Libitina was concerned with the extinction of the life force. An underworld deity of great importance in Rome, her temple was located outside the Servian Walls, more or less at the central point of Rome’s vast necropolis on the Campus Esquilinus. Its exact location is not known, but since I had to site it somewhere, I put it at the crossroads where the Via Labicana intersected with two important diverticula (ring roads). The temple precinct was large for a Roman temple, and had a grove of trees, presumably cypresses (associated with death). In this precinct Rome’s undertakers and funeral directors had their headquarters, presumably operating from stalls or booths. The temple itself contained a register of Roman citizen deaths and was rich, thanks to the accumulation of the coins which had to be paid to register a death. Should there be no consul to employ them, the fasces of the consul were deposited on a special couch inside the temple; the axes which were inserted into his fasces only when he left the city were also kept in the temple. I imagine that Rome’s burial clubs, of which there were many, were connected in some way to Venus Libitina.
Vesta A very old Roman goddess of numinous nature, having no mythology and no image. She was the hearth, and so had particular importance within the family unit and the home, where she was worshipped alongside the Di Penates and the Lar Familiaris. Her official, public cult was equally important, and was personally supervised by the Pontifex Maximus. Her temple in the Forum Romanum was very small, very old, and round in shape; it was adjacent to the Regia, the Well of Juturna and the residence of the Pontifex Maximus. A fire burned in the temple permanently, and could not be allowed to go out.
Vestal Virgins Vesta had her own priesthood, the college of six women called the Vestal Virgins. They were inducted at about seven or eight years of age, took vows of complete chastity, and served the goddess for thirty years, after which they were released from their vows and sent back into the community at large. Their service over, they could marry if they wished—though few did, as it was thought unlucky. Their chastity was Rome’s luck; that is, the luck of the State. When a Vestal was deemed unchaste she was not judged and punished out of hand, but was formally brought to trial in a specially convened court. Her alleged lovers were also tried, but in a different court. If convicted, she was cast into an underground chamber dug for the purpose; it was sealed over, and she was left there to die. In Republican times the Vestal Virgins lived in the same State house as the Pontifex Maximus, though sequestered from him.
vexillum A flag or banner. via A main highway, road, or street.
villa A country residence, completely self-contained, and originally having an agricultural purpose—in other words, a farmstead. It was built around a peristyle or courtyard, had stables or farm buildings at its front, and the main dwelling at its back. Wealthy Romans of the late Republic began to build villas as vacation homes rather than as farmsteads, considerably changing the architectural nature (and grandeur) of the villa. Many holiday villas were on the seashore.
vir militaris See Military Man.
voting Roman voting was timocratic, in that the power of the vote was powerfully influenced by property status, and in that voting was not “one man, one vote” in style. Whether an individual voted in the Centuries or in the Tribes, his own personal vote could only influence the verdict of the Century or the Tribe in which he polled. Election outcomes were determined by the number of Century or Tribal votes going a particular way. Juridical voting was different. On a jury an individual did have a direct say in the outcome, as the jury contained an odd number of men and the decision was a majority one, not an unanimous one. It was timocratic, however, as a man of little property had little chance of jury duty.
Wooden Bridge The name always given to the Pons Sublicius, the oldest of the bridges spanning the Tiber at the city of Rome.
yoke The yoke was the crossbeam or tie which rested upon the necks of a pair of oxen or other animals in harness to draw a load. In human terms, it came to mean the mark of servility, of submission to the superiority and domination of others. There was a yoke for the young of both sexes to pass beneath inside the city of Rome, located somewhere on the Carinae; it was called the Tigillum, and perhaps signified submission to the seriousness of adult life. However, it was in military circumstances that the yoke came to have its greatest metaphorical significance. Very early Roman (or perhaps Etruscan) armies forced a defeated enemy to pass beneath the yoke; two spears were planted upright in the ground, and a third spear was placed from one top to the other to form a crosstie—the whole was too low for a man to pass beneath walking erect, he had to bend right over. Other peoples within Italy also adopted the custom, with the result that from time to time a Roman army was forced to pass beneath the yoke. To acquiesce to this was an intolerable humiliation; so much so, that the Senate and People back in Rome usually preferred to see an army stand and fight until the last man was dead, rather than s
acrifice honor and dignitas by surrendering and passing beneath the yoke.
PRONUNCIATION GUIDE TO ROMAN MASCULINE NAMES
To some extent, the pronunciation of classical Latin is still debated, but there are definite conventions among scholars. Liturgical Latin and medieval Latin are pronounced somewhat differently than classical Latin. None of which need worry the reader unduly. The aim of this little section is simply to offer guidelines for those readers without Latin.
One convention adhered to in pronouncing classical Latin is to sound the consonantal v like our English w: thus, the word veritas is properly pronounced weritas. But the rule is not hard and fast, even among scholars, so in the interests of reader comfort, I shall proceed to ignore it.
The diphthong ae should not be pronounced as in “say,” but rather as in “eye”; this convention I have adhered to.
We have several more consonants in English than the Latin language did. The one which concerns the reader most is j. It has been customary in the English language for centuries to spell those Latin words commencing in consonantal i with a j. Thus, Julius should really be lulius, and pronounced Yoo-lee-uss, not Joo-lee-uss. However, I have elected to go with English j.
The Latin g has only one sound, which I shall call guh, as in “gain”—”get”—”give”—”gone”—”gun.” The other g sound in English, which I shall call juh, as in “ginger,” is never used in pronouncing Latin.
Rather than adopt one of the current lexicographic systems of pronunciation, I have elected to use a phonetic system of my own, rhyming the Latin with some ordinary English word pronounced identically on both sides of the Atlantic as well as in the Antipodes—where possible!
And, last but by no means least, none of it really matters save to the purist. The most important thing is that the reader discover and enjoy the world of Republican Rome. Do not feel uncomfortable with the names. Latin is a major root of the English language, and that is a major help in itself. (Note: in some cases I have given the standard English pronunciation first, and put the more correct pronunciation in parentheses, in the lists below.)
The Praenomen (the First Name)
Appius
Ah-pee-uss (ah as in “pa,” “ma”—uss as in “puss”)
Aulus
Ow-luss (ow as in “cow”)
Gaius
Gye-uss (gye as in “eye”)
Gnaeus
Nye-uss (nye as in “eye”)
Lucius
Loo-shuss (more correctly, Loo-kee-uss)
Mamercus
Mah-mer-kuss (mah as in “pa”—mer as in “her”)
Manius
Mah-nee-uss (mah as in “pa”)
Marcus
Mar-kuss
Publius
Pub-lee-uss (pub has the same u sound as “put”)
Quintus
Kwin-tuss (kwin as in “twin”)
Servius
Ser-vee-uss (ser as in “her”)
Sextus
Sex-tuss (sex as in “sex”)
Spurius
Spoo-ree-uss (spoo as in “too”)
Tiberius
Tye-beer-ee-uss (more correctly, Tee-bear-ee-uss)
Titus
Tye-tuss (more correctly, Tee-tuss)
The Nomen (the Family or Gentilicial Name, Indicating the Gens)
Aelius
Eye-lee-uss (eye as in “eye”—uss as in “puss”)
Aemilius
Eye-mil-ee-uss (mil as in “will”)
Annius
An-nee-uss (an as in “tan”)
Antistius
Ahn-tist-ee-uss (ahn as in “gone”—list as in “fist”)
Antonius
An-toh-nee-uss (an as in “tan”—toh as in “so”)
Appuleius
Ah-poo-lay-ee-uss (poo as in “too”—lay as in “say”)
Aquillius
Ah-kwill-ee-uss (kwill as in “will”)
Atilius
Ah-tee-lee-uss
Aurelius
Or-ree-lee-uss (more correctly, Ow-ray-lee-uss)
Baebius
Bye-bee-uss (bye as in “eye”)
Billienus
Bill-ee-ay-nuss (bill as in “will”—ay as in “say”)
Caecilius
Kye-kill-ee-uss (kye as in “eye”—kill as in “will”)
Caelius
Kye-lee-uss
Calpurnius
Kahl-purr-nee-uss (kahl as in “doll”)
Cassius
Kass-ee-uss (kass as in “lass”)
Claudius
Klaw-dee-uss (klaw as in “paw”)—the English way; Klow-dee-uss (klow as in “cow”)—the correct Latin way
Clodius
Kloh-dee-uss (kloh as in “so”)’
Coelius
Koy-lee-uss (koy as in “boy”)
Cornelius
Kor-nee-lee-uss (strictly, Kor-nay-lee-uss)
Curtius
Koor-tee-uss (koor as in “poor”)
Decius
Deck-ee-uss (deck as in “peck”)
Decumius
Deck-oo-mee-uss (oo as in “too”)
Didius
Did-ee-uss (did as in “bid”)
Domitius
Dom-it-ee-uss (dom as in “torn”—it as in “fit”)
Equitius
Ay-kwit-ee-uss (ay as in “say”—kwit as in “fit”)
Fabius
Fay-bee-uss (strictly, Fab-ee-uss, fab as in “cab”)
Fabricius
Fab-rick-ee-uss (fab as in “cab”—rick as in “kick”)
Fannius
Fan-nee-uss (fan as in “tan”)
Flavius
Flay-vee-uss (strictly, Flah-vee-uss)
Fraucus
Frow-kuss (frow as in “cow”)
Fulvius
Full-vee-uss (strictly, Fool-vee-uss)
Furius
Few-ree-uss (strictly, Foo-ree-uss)
Gavius
Gah-vee-uss (gah as in “pa”)
Granius
Grah-nee-uss (grah as in “pa”)
Gratidius
Grah-tid-ee-uss (tid as in “bid”)
Herennius
Her-en-ee-uss
Hortensius
Hor-ten-see-uss (hor as in “or”—ten as in “ten”)
Julius
Joo-lee-uss (joo as in “too”)
Junius
Joo-nee-uss
Labienus
Lab-ee-ay-nuss (lab as in “cab”—ay as in “say”)
Licinius
Lick-in-ee-uss (lick as in “kick”—in as in “sin”)
Livius
Liv-ee-uss (liv as in “spiv”)
Lucilius
Loo-kill-ee-uss
Lusius
Loo-see-uss
Lutatius
Loo-tah-tee-uss (tah as in “pa”)
Macrinus
Mah-kree-nuss (mah as in “pa”)
Maelius
Mye-lee-uss (mye as in “eye”)
Magius
Mah-gee-uss (the g as in “gear”)
Mallius
Mah-lee-uss
Mamilius
Mah-mill-ee-uss (mill as in “will”)
Manlius
Mahn-lee-uss
Marcius
Mar-shuss (more correctly, Mar-kee-uss)
Marius
Mah-ree-uss
Matius
Mat-ee-uss (mat as in “pat”)
Memmius
Mem-ee-uss (mem as in “them”)
Minucius
Min-oo-kee-uss (min as in “sin”—oo as in “too”)
Mucius
Mew-shuss (more correctly, Moo-kee-uss)
Nonius
Noh-nee-uss (noh as in “so”)
Norbanus
Nor-bah-nuss (nor as in “or”—bah as in “pa”)
Octavius
Ock-tay-vee-uss (more correctly, Ock-tah-vee-uss)
Opimius
Oh-pee-mee-u
ss
Oppius
Op-ee-uss (op as in “top”)
Papirius
Pah-pee-ree-uss
Perquitienus
Pair-kwit-ee-ay-nuss (pair as in “air”)
Petreius
Pet-ray-uss (pet as in “yet”)
Plautius
Plow-tee-uss (plow as in “cow”)
Plotius
Ploh-tee-uss (ploh as in “so”)
Pompeius
Pom-pay-ee-uss (pom as in “torn”—-pay as in “say”)
Pomponius
Pom-poh-nee-uss (poh as in “so”)
Popillius
Pop-ill-ee-uss (pop as in “top”—ill as in “will”)
Poppaedius
Pop-eye-dee-uss (pop as in “top”)
Porcius
Por-shuss (more correctly, Por-kee-uss)
Masters of Rome Boxset: First Man in Rome, the Grass Crown, Fortune's Favourites, Caesar's Women, Caesar Page 240