B2 vitamin, 110
back-to-land movement, 8
bacteria, 42–43, 184
“bad food,” xi, 16
baguettes, 51–52, 53–54, 184
Baker, John C., 69
bakeries: artisan, 52, 53, 54, 183–85; boycotts of, 41; cellar, 38–40, 44; clean bread advertising by, 40–41; concerns about cleanliness of, 37–38, 41–45; decrease in number of, 44; high-end bakeries, 183–85; immigrant labor and, 39–40; industrial bread competing with small, 69–70; industrialization of, 24; labor organizations and, 38; in the late nineteenth century, 23, 24; in Mexico, 150, 153–55; offering dark breads, 123; regulation of, 38–39; resurgence of small, 183; sliced bread offered by, 56; working conditions in, 39. See also individual bakery names
bakers. See bread bakers
bakery inspections, 38, 39, 41
bakery strike of 1801 (New York), 35
bakery strikes, 35, 36
baking bread. See bread making
baking industry: bread wrapping and, 43–44; chemical dough conditioners used by, 129; depiction of homemade bread by, 62; health breads, 179–81; health consciousness and, 178; in Japan, 145; on nutrition in white bread, 98–99; product diversification by (1980s and 1990s), 182–83; sliced bread and, 56, 57–58; on synthetic enrichment, 112, 114. See also bread bakers; individual company names
Baking Technology, 78
Bang, Eleanor, x
Baukhage, H. R., 138
Beard, James, 181
Beard on Bread (Beard), 181
beer, 3, 4, 23, 39, 163, 164, 192, 193
Belasco, Warren, 166
Bellamy, Edward, 59
Bell Telephone Laboratories, 115
Bench, Frank, 55
Benedict, Francis, 109
Benson, Ezra Taft, 147
beriberi, 115
Berkeley, California, 10, 11–13, 173, 185
Berlin blockade, 139–40
Berrigan, Daniel, 168
Better Homes and Gardens, 118
Bimbo Bakery, 153–55, 160–61; Bimbo bread, 133–34, 154, 155, 165. See also Grupo Bimbo
Black Death, 4
bleached flour, 66–68
Boer War, 108–9
bolillo roll, 149, 150
Borlaug, Norman, 152
botulism, 34
boycotts, bakery, 41
boys (masculinity), 127
bran, 85–86, 97, 99
Brasserie Four (Walla Walla, Washington), 51–52
bread: health bread, 179–81; as issue in the 1960s and 1970s, 168; meaning “food in general,” 3. See also industrial bread; white bread; whole wheat bread
Bread Alone bakery, 52
bread bakers: accusations against, in history, 5–6, 19; efforts to increase bread consumption, 30–31; on enriched bread, 113–14; nature of immigrant, 40; working conditions of, 36, 38, 39; workplace safety for, 39. See also baking industry
bread choices: demonstrating fitness, 95; social status and, 186–87
bread consumption: fears over declining, 30–31; increase of, during counterculture of 1960s and 1970s, 172–81; increase of, in early twentieth century, 31; in Mexico, 155; during 1930s, 111; during 1940s and 1950s, 122–23; during 1950s, 167; social status and, 7; study of, in Rockford, Illinois (1954–55), 121–22
bread distribution, 3, 4, 138, 155
bread enrichment. See enriched bread
bread industry: depiction of homemade bread by, 62
Bread in the Wilderness (Merton), 168
bread making: assembly-line, 24, 26, 54, 55, 69, 185; automatic baking, 20–25; concerns over microbiology of, 42–43; history of, 3; industrialization of, 24–25; in Mexico, 154–55; nostalgia and, 174, 176–77; pre-modern, xxx; as a techno-science, 60–61; Ward Bakery, New York, 20–21; for wedding, 1-2. See also bread bakers; homemade bread
bread mold, 42, 150, 154
“bread question,” 1, 21, 23, 201n1
bread rationing, 3–4, 136, 137–38, 139
bread riots, 4–5, 136, 139, 150
Breadsmith, 183
bread supply: in English history, 5; French Revolution and, 4–5. See also bread rationing
Bread Trust, 178. See also bread industry; oligopoly
Britain, 4, 112–13, 136
Broussais, François, 80
Brown, Edward Espe, 169
brown bread, 95, 97, 173, 187. See also dark breads; rye bread; whole wheat bread
“Builds a Body 8 Ways” ad campaign, 127
Bulnes, Francisco, 149
“Busted Staff of Life” (Anderson), 124–25
Butz, Earl, 167
caloric intake from bread, 4, 6, 20, 111, 123, 136
Camacho, Manuel Ávila, 151
Campbell’s Soup Company, 180
Camus, Albert, 166
“Canadian Bread,” 113
capitalism, industrial food production and, 59–60, 170, 171
Cárdenas, Lázaro, 150, 151
Carmona, Richard, 108
Carnegie Institution, 109
celiac disease, 75
cellar bakeries, 38–40, 44
Chautauquan (journal), 42
chemical additives in bread, 167
Chez Panisse, 12, 186
Chicago Daily Tribune, 86
Chicago, 26; bakery inspections and regulation in, 38–39; Days of Rage, 172; meatpacking industry in, 38
Chicago Journal of Commerce, 97–98
Chidlow Institute, 61
children: in bread advertising, 125–26; Graham bread for, 86; school lunch program for Japanese, 144, 145–47; study on enriched bread with, 124. See also boys (masculinity)
Chile, 160
Chillicothe, Missouri, x, 51
Chillicothe Baking Company, 55
Chillicothe Constitution-Tribune, 55
China, 127, 136
cholera, 15, 34, 81–83
Christian, Eugene, 42
Christian physiology, 80–81, 89
Christian Science Monitor, 129
Churchill, Winston, 136
Civil Defense nutrition classes, 119
Clark, P. L., 73, 98
class: associated with bread in Mexico, 149; and availability of enriched bread, 114–17; bread choices linked with, 37, 46; bread consumption and, 123; rural inequality from Mexico’s Agricultural Program and, 157; small bakery revival and, 13; white trash and, 163–65, 187–88. See also social status
cleanliness, domestic, 33–34
Cleveland, 26
Cogdell, Christina, 58
Cold War, 14, 125; bread advertising during, 126–27; bread-strength and vigor association during, 125–30; consumer affluence of America and, 140–41; famine relief during, 135; industrial food production and, 134–36, 141, 161; rice vs. wheat and, 147
Colliers, 129
commercial bakeries, 23, 63. See also store-bought bread
Committee on the Deterioration of the Race, 109
The Commune Cookbook (Dragonwagon), 168, 174, 186
communism: bread/wheat shipments and, 139–40; Mexico and, 150–51, 152; white bread’s role in securing Asia against, 144–48. See also Cold War
Communists, French, 138–39
“companion,” 1, 6
The Complete Bread, Cake, and Cracker Baker, 42
conservatives, in alternative food movement, 105–7
Consumer Reports, 124
contagion. See food-borne illnesses; food purity; hygiene; sanitation
Continental Baking Company, 27–28
continuous-mix baking, 69–70
control and abundance, 8, 51–72; associations with whiteness of bread, 64–66; bleached flour, 66–68; control over bread making, 60–61; criticism of homemade bread, 61–63; fermentation process, 68–70; La Brea Bakery, 52–55, 70–71; problems associated with industrial plenty, 71–72; sliced bread, invention of, 55–57; streamlined aesthetic, 57–58; utopian visions, 58–60
convenience, bread choices and, 29–30, 37, 57
&nbs
p; cookbooks, counterculture, 169, 177
Corbett, Jim, 10
Corita, Sister, 166, 168
corn, 11, 149–50, 152, 158
Cornell Bread, 113, 114
corn tortillas, 6, 134, 149
counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s, ix, 14; American individualism and independence in, 171; anti-capitalism, 170–71; criticism of white bread in, 166–67; food reform during, 168; Grahamism and, 86; and health bread, 179–81; health consciousness and, 177–79; high-end bakeries with roots in, 183–84; increase in bread consumption during, 172; National Bread Day and, 172; revolt against culinary expertise, 169–70; romanticizing the past and, 174, 176–77; self-transformation and, 177; “white bread” meaning in, 165; whole wheat bread and, 173–74; women’s place in the kitchen and, 174–76
Cowan, Ruth Schwartz, 71
Crimson Spectre, 188
culinary expertise, revolt against, 169–70
cultural assumptions, about Japanese diet, 146–47
Cuordileone, K. A., 128
cyclists, professional, 73–74
Czechoslovakia, 140
Czech Republic, 3
Dangerous Grains, 74
dark breads, 7, 141–42, 172, 186–87. See also brown bread; rye bread; whole wheat bread
Darwinism, 59, 88
Davis, Jon, 52–53, 54, 70
Deschanel, Zooey, 74
Desmond, Thomas C., 121
diammonium phosphate, ix
DÍaz, Porfirio, 149
diet: Assyrian Empire, 3–4; civilian, during wartime, 108–9; criticism of white bread, 89–90; cultural assumptions about Japan’s, 146–47; Depression-era, 110; early twentieth-century reformers on, 34; European Middle Ages, 4; gluten-free, 73–78; Sylvester Graham on, 15, 80, 81, 83, 85–86; “improving” race through, 93–95; national security/defense and, 107–10; and Physical Culture, 92; and poverty, 15, 22–23; racial eugenicists on poor, 36; World War II–era, 110–11. See also nutrition; poor diet
Dietary Goals for the United States, 179
Diet for a Small Planet (Lappe), 179
“Dirt” (Salter), 165
disease: anxieties over bread sanitation and, 42; botulism, 34; celiac disease, 75; cholera, 15, 81–83; E. coli, 19; personal responsibility and, 82; typhoid, 34; typhus, 46; untainted milk and, 18; white bread as source of, 98. See also food-borne illnesses
“Do-Good” defense bread, 129
Do-Maker Process, 69–70
domestic advice on bread making, 60
domesticity: counterculture and, 172; criticism of home baking and, 63; “femivore’s dilemma” and, 175–76; professionalization of, 31–33. See also housewives
Douglass, William Campbell, 49
draft, military, 110
Dragonwagon, Crescent, 168–70, 174, 186
Dreher, Rob, 106
drought (1945–46), 136
Dugan Brothers, 88–89
Dulles, John Foster, 140
E. coli, 19
Edson, Cyrus, 42
Egypt, bread rationing in ancient, 4
Eisenhower, Dwight, 140
elitism, xi, 71, 186
el Molino (the Windmill), 154
El Trigo de Rockefeller (Rockefeller wheat), 152–53, 155
English Assize of Bread, 5
enriched bread: for the affluent vs. underprivileged, 114–17; aftermath of, 130–31; associated with individual and national strength/defense, 121, 123, 125–30; consumer knowledge on, 117–18; national education campaign for, 118–20; study on health impact of, 124; support for industrial white, 124–25; during wartime, 109, 112–14. See also vitamins
ergotism, 143
eugenics, 21, 36, 88, 93–94, 95. See also racial eugenics
Europe: American white bread vs. bread from, 142–44; bread choices linked with class in, 37; bread consumed in history of, 4; crop failure and famine in, 136; famine relief for, 136–37; U.S. wheat exports to, 137–40
European-style breads, 51–52, 53, 142–43, 160, 184, 185
euthenics movement, 36–37, 219n50
Everybody’s Health, 99
evolution, 94
exercise: Grahamism and, 85; Physical Culture and, 91, 92, 95
extraction rate for flour, 112–13, 137, 222n15
family values, 84
famine, 125, 136
famine relief, 135, 136–37
Farm Journal, 138
Farrell, Florence, 29, 30
Fast Food Nation (Schlosser), 11, 48
fasting, 92, 95
FDA, 115
Federal Security Agency, 119
Federal Trade Commission (FTC), 28, 178
femivores, 175–76
fermentation, 189–95; changes in bread through rapid-fire, 77; food safety and, 42–43; industrial bread and, 24; La Brea’s commitment to slow, 52, 54, 70; microbiology of, 189–90; political dream of, 190–95; speeding up, 68–70; techno-scientific baking and, 68–69
fiber, dietary, 83, 101, 179, 180–81
Fish, Hamilton, 133
fitness competitions, 93–94
flavor, in European vs. American bread and, 144
Fleischmann’s advertisement, 119
Flesch, Rudolf, 141
Flex-o-Matic tray ovens, 154
Flinders, Carol, 175, 176
flour: availability of refined, 65–66; bleached, 66–68; high-extraction, 112–13, 137, 222n15; refined, 65–66, 78, 83; unbleached, 68, 180; U.S. aid with, 138, 139–40; used for Mexican bread making, 154–55. See also enriched bread; refined wheat/flour; white flour
Flournoy, J. J., 86
food, industrial. See industrial food
and food production food, knowing origins of your, 48–49
food access, 159
food aid, 135
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 115
food-borne illnesses, 19, 34, 35, 46–47
Food for Peace, 192 “food in general,” bread meaning, 3
Food in War and in Peace, 121
food movements: dialogue about food and, 195–96; dream of naturalness in, 194; euthenics movement, 36–37; Grahamism, 79–88; Pure Foods Movement, 18–19, 68. See also alternative food movement; counterculture of the 1960s and 1970s
food politics, 6, 10, 11; of agriculture, 107; in Berkeley, California, 12; dreamworlds and, 13–16; of Mexican food production, 134–35; “the Mexican Miracle” and, 134, 155–58; in 1960s
counterculture, 170–71
food power: during Cold War, 135; famine relief and, 137; food access and, 159; with Mexico, 148, 151
food production. See industrial food and food production
food purity: anxieties over homemade bread and, 44–45; automatic baking and, 20; bakery inspections/regulation and, 38–39; early twentieth-century concern over, 34–35; and Pure Foods Movement, 18–19, 68; social purity confused with, 19–20. See also food safety; hygiene; purity and contagion, dreams of; sanitation
food rationing, 123. See also bread rationing
food safety, 190–91; knowing the source of your food and, 48–49; need for new model of, 49–50; regulations, 19; resurgent anxiety about, 46–47; wrapped bread and, 43. See also hygiene; sanitation
Foxworthy, Jeff, 164
France, U.S. wheat shipments to, 138–39
Fredericks, Carleton, 167
Freihofer bread, 161
French bread, 1, 23, 142–43, 149
French Communists, 138–39
French Revolution, bread riot and, 5
Fresh Horizons bread, 180–81
Froman, Robert, 129
Froude, Charles, 97
Frounier, Dominique, 194
Fruitlands, 86
Gage, Frances D., 84
Gallup Poll (1940), 118
gender: boy culture during Cold War, 127; bread consumption and, 123. See also women
General Baking Company, 27–28
General Mills, 115–16, 120
genes. See eugenics genetically modified organism (G
MO) labeling, 67
genetic predestination, 94–95
germs, 14, 18, 33–34, 41–43, 44, 45. See also bacteria; disease; food-borne illnesses; hygiene; sanitation
Gilded Age, 8
Gilgamesh, 3
Glendening, Logan, 97
global food politics, 11
gluten-free diet, 73–78
GMO labeling, 67
Going against the Grain, 74
“Golden Age of Food Fads,” 34
Gold Medal flour, 68
“good bread”: counterculture on, 170, 171; “good society” and, 7–8, 9; Grahamism and, 86–87; paradox of efforts to produce, 195–96; social structure and, 6; traditional family values and, 84
“good food,” xi, 204n19; changing the world through, 13; counterculture of 1960s and 1970s and, 174; distribution of power and, 12; elitism and, 12–13; “good society” and, 10, 171; knowing where your food comes from and, 48–49; low-paid work and, 16; mindset of fermentation and, 194–95; national security and, 107–8; progressive era and, 22–23; utopian dreams of, 13–15, 190–96
Good Housekeeping, 36, 43, 68, 118–19
Gouveia, Lourdes, 49
Graham, Sylvester, 15, 79–88, 89, 101
graham crackers, 79, 86
Graham flour, 86
Grahamism, 79–88, 92, 101–2, 171
Grain Damage, 74
The Grain-Free Diet, 74
Great Britain. See Britain
Great Depression, 72, 110; health of Americans during, 110
Great Harvest, 183
Greece, 139; ancient Greece, 7
Greeley, Horace, 84
Green Revolution wheat programs: in India, 158–59; Mexican production of bread, 153–55; negative effect of, 157–59; a Second, 161
Griffith, R. Marie, 93, 95
Grupo Bimbo, x, 133–34, 135, 160–61, 197–98
Guthman, Julie, 12
Haffner, George, 61
Hale, Sarah Josepha, 84
health: benefits of wheat bread, 95; counterculture’s impact on awareness of, 177–79; European vs. American bread and, 144; for fighting during World War II, 110–11; social status and, 187; study on enriched bread’s impact on, 124. See also disease; food-borne illnesses
health and discipline, dreams of, 8, 73–103, 191; and Christian physiology, 80–81; and criticism of white bread, 88–90, 97–98; and eugenics movement, 93–94; and fears over health impact of bread, 78–79; and gluten-free diet, 73–78, 100–3; and gospel of moderation, 98–100; Grahamism, 79–88; and health impact of white bread, 97–98; and overcoming genetic predestination, 94–95; and Physical Culture philosophy, 91–93; and racial vigor with white bread, 95–97
White Bread Page 30