by King, Tom
Having discovered that 250 bombers had been given to Harris for the raid, the Admiralty in charge of Coastal Command suddenly withdrew the Coastal Command’s donation, refusing to allow their aircraft to fly as a part of Harris’ mission. Unfortunately, Britain’s Royal Air Force and Royal Navy were struggling for control of maritime air power at the time, leading to increased hostilities and disrupted communication between both branches. Once the Admiralty recognized that aiding Bomber Command meant crippling their own prospects for building a force to combat the German U-boat, they refused to provide assistance for Harris’ mission. Though Harris himself had nothing to do with the struggle for power, the situation remained the same; the Admiralty would not willingly help Bomber Command claim a serious victory, ensuring them maritime air power, if they could help it. Thus, Harris was down by 250 aircraft and had limited options if he wanted the 1,000 bomber raid to succeed. He would have to become resourceful.
In what would later be considered a massive public relations exercise, Harris and the Bomber Command redoubled their efforts, ensuring that every spare aircraft in the squadron was retrieved to fulfill the 1,000 bomber need. Though this effort was successful, it did require that some of Bomber Command’s unprepared pilots fly in the raid. In the end, Harris did everything he could to ensure that each training crew had at least one experienced pilot on board, but there were still 49 aircraft out of the 208 provided by 91 Group that would take off with pilots-in-training.
Finally Harris’ hard work paid off, and he managed to acquire 1,047 planes for his operation, with only four of those planes supplied by Training Command and the rest coming from Bomber Command. Since the raid was two and a half times greater than any single night’s effort by Bomber Command, Harris was prepared to lose 100 planes in the mission, a number which, though appalling, was really somewhat reasonable given the unprecedented size and timing of the raid. Additionally, Harris managed to acquire several other planes to fly alongside his bombers and conduct Intruder raids on the night-fighter airfields near the bomber stream, providing more protection for the bombers and running interference for any German efforts. With everything in place at last, final orders were ready on the 26th of May, 1942, with a full moon approaching. The only question that remained was which city to target.
Harris’ first choice target was Hamburg, the second largest city in Germany and a port for building German U-boats, making it a devastating target for his massive raid. Unfortunately, weather over Hamburg proved to be a bit difficult, and though Harris waited as long as he could, conditions never improved over the city. Finally, by the 30th of May, Harris caved and sent out orders to commence with the operation for his second choice of target: the third-largest city in Germany, Cologne. The bomber raid was a go and finally commenced on the clear, moonlit evening of May 30th.
With bombers taking off at 22.30 from 53 bases across Britain, crews were told to follow the River Rhine once they reached Western Europe, using it as a guide to lead them straight to Cologne. Since the first bombers to arrive had to lead the way to Cologne, they were the most modern aircraft in the raid and were equipped with GEE navigational equipment. Once they arrived, these aircraft had fifteen minutes alone with the city, giving them time to target the Neumarkt in the city’s old town and initiate enough fires to create a sort of beacon for other planes to follow. Then, the other bombers coming in were assigned targets one mile north or south of the Neumarkt, which ensured that each bomber could easily find its target and spread fires throughout the city. Overall, the 1,000 bombers dropped a total tonnage of 1,455 bombs, with two-thirds of them being incendiaries. The result was 2,500 fires started in Cologne, and between 469 and 486 deaths, particularly since this was the 105th time in the war that air raid sirens went off in Cologne, which meant that many individuals doubted the validity of the sirens and refused to seek shelter. By the time the people of Cologne realized that the bomb threat was real, bombs were already dropping from the sky and there was nothing to be done. Overall, the attack destroyed 600 acres (300 acres of the city center), and 13,000 homes, damaged 6,000 other homes, left 45,000 people homeless, and resulted in over 5,000 casualties. Additionally, industrial life around the city was frozen for a week, and it took the city about six months to fully recover and return to industry. Later, it was revealed that the intensity of the attack was so great that the final run of bombers could see the glow of the flames from 100 miles away, with smoke from the fires rising to as high as 15,000 feet. For a week following the attack, the immense density of the smoke over Cologne actually made it difficult for the RAF to acquire any decent reconnaissance photos of the city. Harris had accomplished his incredible feat, and Cologne was left to suffer the consequences of his success.
Meanwhile, Harris’ bombers fared far better than the city of Cologne, with only four bombers lost in collisions over the city and 35 lost to the efforts of German night-fighters. Miraculously, this was only 4% of the bombers involved in the raid, and less than half the amount that Bomber Command could afford to lose. For an initial attempt at a tricky new maneuver, such results were not bad at all. In fact, the success of the first raid led to Harris attempting another 1,000 bomber raid at Essen, since he had hoped that his 1,000 bomber strategy would be used more than once in the war. Unfortunately, the second raid was not nearly as successful as the first, and none of the raids following Essen made it back up to the 1,000 mark, nor lived up to the initial offensive at Cologne. In spite of the lesser success of the later raids, massive numbers of bombers were still called upon from time to time, but never to the extent to which Harris had hoped. In spite of that, the raid certainly made its mark on history and resulted in new, successful tactics for raids to come. Progressively, the tactics used in the 1,000 bomber raid would allow for 700 or 800 aircraft to participate in raids, passing over a city in less than twenty minutes. The British front line was also pushed for the rest of the summer, bombers targeting German cities when the weather was clear and retreating to coastal targets when it was not. Overall, the success of the raid increased publicity for the Bomber Command and greatly boosted morale for the British, and the ambitious ‘Bomber’ Harris remained in the public eye for the rest of his life.
The Battle of Midway
Shortly after the 1,000 bomber raid at Cologne, another battle between the U.S. and Japan broke out in the Pacific Theater, beginning June 3rd, 1942 and ending on the 6th. In one of the largest naval battles of World War II, the United States damaged Japan’s carrier strength and eliminated many of the nation’s best-trained naval pilots. Alongside the Battle of Guadalcanal, the Battle of Midway effectively put an end to further invasion of the Japanese in the Pacific. The Battle of Midway was also fought almost entirely with aircraft, with the battleships and carrier fleets receiving most of the damage.
Following May 1942, the indecisive Battle of the Coral Sea left Japan struggling, though the Japanese eventually decided that it was necessary for them to continue with plans to seize Midway Island and bases in the Aleutians if they wanted to have a chance at taking the Pacific Theater once and for all. Japan also wanted to have a naval showdown with the U.S. Pacific fleet, since the Japanese fleet was numerically bigger and had become a considerable force on the Pacific front. Thus, the Japanese began making plans to seize Midway Island, which included a feint to Alaska by a smaller Japanese fleet in the hopes of drawing the American carrier fleet away from Midway and into a trap. Overall, the Japanese wanted revenge for the U.S.’s Tokyo Air Raid, which bombed Japan’s home islands two months earlier. They also wanted to close the gap in their Eastern defensive perimeter, which was disrupted by the U.S.’s control of Midway, and they hoped to finish off the U.S. Pacific Fleet entirely, perhaps even invading and taking Hawaii along the way. If these goals could be met, the Japanese Navy would essentially have control of the Pacific and would have direct access to the U.S. West Coast, which would be entirely defenseless since the rest of the U.S. Navy was deployed halfway around the world in the
North Atlantic. In fact, arguments regarding Japan’s actual plans following its destruction of the U.S. Pacific Fleet vary, with some saying that the Japanese only wanted regional conquest, not conquest of North America, and would have left the U.S. alone, whereas others argue that either attack or the threat of attack on the U.S. West Coast would have been enough to divert American military assets away from Europe and toward their homeland. This diversion would, therefore, lengthen the war in the European Theater, giving Japan more time to resurrect the Axis powers and even win the war. Most importantly, however, Japan needed a win, and Midway was the perfect place to start. Though Midway was not, in and of itself, all that important in Japan’s overall war plans - after all, Japan was hoping to expand their newly conquered southeastern Pacific territory through the acquisition of the Samoan Islands, Fiji and Australia - it was the last U.S. base that remained closest to Japan, and would be heavily guarded by the Americans. Thus, conquering and acquiring Midway would be a considerable victory for Japan, and would give the nation the base they needed to create an unbreakable front.
On June 3rd, Admiral Yamamoto Isoroku sent the majority of the Japanese Naval fleet toward Midway, instructing the initial fleet’s four heavy and three light aircraft carriers to invade Midway and destroy the U.S. Naval fleet along the way. Yamamoto’s complicated plans for the offensive included trailing the initial carrier fleet with his main naval force, which would target any of the U.S. Navy that tried to come to Midway’s defense. For the most part, the increased complication of Japan’s plans for invasion was a direct result of the recent Tokyo Air Raid by U.S. Army B-25s, which proved that the Japanese homeland was not immune from an attack by the Americans. Thus, the Japanese did everything they could to cover their plans with secrecy and confusion, preventing the U.S. from discovering their tactics prematurely. Unfortunately, Japan’s carefully concealed and articulated plans were all for naught, U.S. Intelligence broke the Japanese naval codes and, before long, knew everything about their plans.
Though U.S. Intelligence had divined that the Japan intended to attack and was able to send for three heavy aircraft carriers from the U.S. Pacific Fleet, they had yet to determine the location of the target. All Intelligence knew was that the codename for the target was AF, and until they could determine the location of the intended target, their information on Japan’s tactical plan was useless. Thankfully, a young officer at Station Hypo, Jasper Holmes, suggested that the base commander at Midway send a radio message to Pearl Harbor, saying in plain English that there was an emergency at the base and they were running low on drinking water. As Holmes had predicted, a JN-25 message sent shortly thereafter stated that AF was having water problems, and that the imminent attack plans should accommodate to those restrictions accordingly. Thus, AF meant Midway, and the U.S. could easily make tactical plans for their counterattack.
With their newly acquired knowledge of Japan’s attack, the U.S. began the backbreaking labor of transforming the carrier Yorktown in a mere 72 hours from a barely-operational wreck into a working aircraft carrier. The presence of Yorktown in the Battle of Midway undoubtedly altered the course of the entire fight, considering the fact that the Japanese had assumed the United States would only be able to send the Enterprise and the Hornet under Admiral Spruance to meet the Imperial Fleet’s four best aircraft carriers; Soryu, Hiryu, Akagi, and Kaga. Had the Japanese any idea that the Yorktown would be added to the U.S. Naval defense, then perhaps they would have been better prepared. As it was, however, the Japanese carriers, having reached their destination about 350 miles northeast of Midway, waited in advance for Yamamoto’s armada. War was coming, whether they were ready for it or not.
When the battle officially began on June 3rd, 1942, U.S. bombers from Midway Island attacked the Japanese invasion force, which was located about 220 miles southwest of where the U.S. fleet was stationed. The next morning, Japanese striker planes bombed Midway, while their aircraft carriers did everything they could to escape damage from the U.S. planes that had been based on Hawaii and Midway. Having land-based plans proved to be a huge advantage for the U.S., since they could supply around 115 land-based planes while the Japanese did not have any. Following their attack, the Japanese bombers returned to their aircraft carriers, where Admiral Chuichi Nagumo decided to replenish their bomb supply in preparation for a second offensive against Midway. It was while the planes were being serviced that the Japanese detected U.S. ships nearby, which Nagumo eventually decided would be a better target than Midway. He issued the command for the planes’ bombs to be exchanged with a more appropriate arms load, leaving the carriers dangerously vulnerable with scores of bombs, torpedoes, and fuel hoses covering their decks. That, of course, was when the Americans arrived. Before the Japanese could get their aircraft back into the sky, the U.S. launched their attack from the carriers Enterprise and Hornet under the command of Admiral Spruance. Though the Japanese managed to shoot down nearly all of the U.S.’s TBD Devastator torpedo bombers and every plane of the Hornet’s torpedo squadron 8, their defending Zeros were brought down so low that the American SBD Dauntless dive-bombers from the Enterprise, under the command of Wade McClusky, were able to attack with almost no opposition. It did not take long before three of the Japanese carriers, including the Akagi, Kaga, and Soryu, were either crippled, abandoned, or going up in flames. Meanwhile, the carrier Hiryu had managed to sink Yorktown, though aircraft from the Enterprise turned and did its best to sink Hiryu in response, setting her ablaze and damaging an accompanying destroyer, the Isokaze. Admiral Spruance then launched attacks against the Japanese cruisers Mogami and Mikuma, eventually managing to destroy them as well. The Japanese did not know it yet, but the U.S. had as good as won the battle.
As the battle progressed, the Japanese carriers quickly realized that they were falling behind. The logistics of simultaneously sending a second wave of bombers to Midway, avoiding the attacking U.S. aircraft, and trying to launch an airborne offensive against the newly-sighted U.S. Naval forces was too much for the carriers that were left. Defeated and appalled by their staggering losses, the Japanese began a general retirement by the night of June 4th-5th, turning their backs on Midway and officially retreating by the end of June 6th.
The Battle of Midway later marked a turning point in the war, because it signified a transition of power from Japan to the United States. Having clearly won the battle, the American forces retired while the Japanese returned to their homeland to lick their wounds. It had been six months to the day since the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor, and now the Japanese Imperialist Empire had lost command of the Pacific Theater. Admiral Yamamoto predicted that the Japanese would only last for another six months to a year after the attack at Pearl Harbor, and he was exactly correct. The U.S. Navy had officially overwhelmed Japan’s fleet, signifying that the war in the Pacific was over.
The German Surrender at Stalingrad
In spite of the success of the U.S. in the Pacific and rapidly deteriorating Axis conditions, Germany and Japan would not give up the war willingly. In fact, they believed that until they were entirely out of options, they still had a chance of winning the war. Thus, it was another six months of determined fighting from both sides before disaster struck the German forces in a manner which they could not control; the weather.
While the Japanese were retreating from their defeat in the Pacific, Hitler launched an offensive against the USSR on June 22, 1941, despite the terms of the Nazi-Soviet Pact of 1939. Though the Red Army was significantly larger than the German army, Germany’s superior air force and well-trained soldiers were able to fight them back across the Russian plains, inflicting severe damage on the Red Army and bringing ruin to the Soviet population as well. Incredibly, with the assistance of some troops from their Axis allies, Germany managed to overwhelm a vast amount of the USSR and made it all the way to Leningrad and Moscow by mid-October of 1941.
With General Paulus leading the offensive in the summer of 1942, the German troops raced to inva
de and destroy Stalingrad, per Hitler’s orders. By August, the German Sixth Army had crossed the Volga River, while the German Fourth Air Fleet bombed Stalingrad and reduced it to rubble, resulting in the death of over 40,000 civilians. Then, in early September, General Paulus and his troops reached Stalingrad at last, and Paulus launched his first direct offensives into the city. At the time, Paulus estimated that it would take his troops about ten days to capture Stalingrad. Little did he know that he was about to witness one of the most horrific, yet significant, battles of World War II.