The Longest August

by Dilip Hiro

  5. Karunakar Gupta, Spotlight on Sino-Indian Frontiers (Calcutta: New Book Centre, 1982), 82.

  6. Shastri Ramachandran, “Nehru’s Stubbornness Led to 1962 War with China?,” Times of India, December 19, 2010.

  7. Cited in A. G. Noorani, “Nehru’s China Policy,” Frontline (Chennai), July 22–August 4, 2000.

  8. Dilip Hiro, Inside India Today (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1976 / New York: Monthly Review Press, 1977), 248–249.

  9. Cited by Noorani, “Nehru’s China Policy.”

  10. Ravinder Kumar and H. Y. Sharada Prasad, eds., Selected Works of Jawaharlal Nehru, 2nd series, vol. 26 (New Delhi: Jawaharlal Nehru Memorial Fund, Distributed by Oxford University Press, 2000), 477.

  11. Cited by Noorani, “Nehru’s China Policy.”

  12. Cited in Claude Arpi, “Talks Between Mao and Nehru, October 1954,” http://www.claudearpi .net/maintenance/uploaded_pics/195410TalksMaoNehru.pdf.

  13. B. N. Mullik, My Years with Nehru: The Chinese Betrayal (Bombay: Allied, 1971), 183.

  14. Cited in M. L. Sali, India-China Border Dispute: A Case Study of the Eastern Sector (New Delhi: APH, 1998), 81.

  15. A. G. Noorani, “The Truth about 1962,” Hindu, November 30, 2012.

  16. “Dalai Lama Escapes to India,” BBC News, March 31, 1959.

  17. Cited in Maxwell, India’s China War, 282.

  18. Nehru restrained the Dalai Lama from setting up a government in exile. Kuldip Nayar, India: The Critical Years (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971), 143.

  19. Mark A. Ryan, David M. Finkelstein, and Michael A. McDevitt, Chinese Warfighting: The PLA Experience Since 1949 (Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 2003), 177.

  20. Cited by Noorani, “Nehru’s China Policy.”

  21. The Indian government went on to name October 21 Police Commemoration Day.

  22. Cited by Noorani, “Nehru’s China Policy.”

  23. Ananth Krishnan, “China Files: Crossing the Point of No Return,” Hindu, October 25, 2012.

  24. See Chapter 7, p. 157.

  25. Washington Post, October 22, 1960, cited in Mike Gravel, The Pentagon Papers: The Defense Department History of United States Decision-Making on Vietnam, vol. 2 (Boston: Beacon, 1971), 799.

  26. Noorani, “Nehru’s China Policy,” citing the US Central Intelligence Agency Staff Study for the Department of Defense, “The Sino-India Border Dispute, from 1950 to 1962,” May 2007.

  27. Cited by Noorani, “Nehru’s China Policy.”

  28. Neville Maxwell, “China’s India War: How the Chinese Saw the 1962 Conflict,” East Asia Forum, August 2, 2011.

  29. “Nixon’s China Game,” PBS, June 26, 1961, http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/china/timeline /timeline4nf.html.

  30. Maxwell, “China’s India War.”

  31. Cited by Ye Zhengjia, “Clearing the Atmosphere,” Frontline (Chennai), October 10–23, 1998, citing Major General Lei Yingfu, My Days as a Military Staff in the Supreme Command (in Chinese) (Nanchang: Baihuazhou Culture and Arts, 1997), 210.

  32. Nayar, India, 172–173.

  33. John Kenneth Galbraith, Ambassador’s Journal: A Personal Account of the Kennedy Years (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1969), 388.

  34. Ibid., 383.

  35. Ibid., 376.

  36. Ibid., 387.

  37. Jeff M. Smith, “A Forgotten War in the Himalayas,” Yale Global, September 14, 2012.

  38. Maxwell, India’s China War, 448–449.

  39. Cited in Nayar, India, 179.

  40. See Chapter 7, p. 157.

  41. Haqeeqat won the National Film Award for the second best feature film in 1965.

  42. Cited by Nayar, India, 190.

  43. A. G. Noorani, “Kashmir Resolution: Never Before So Close,” Daily Times (Lahore), June 25, 2008.

  44. Later the US gave India an $80 million loan to finance the construction of a nuclear power station at Tarapur in Bombay province by American corporations, powered by low-enriched uranium supplied by the US government.

  45. Harold Gould, The South Asia Story: The First Sixty Years of U.S. Relations with India and Pakistan (New Delhi: Sage, 2010), 64, 68.

  46. Praveen Swami, “India’s Secret War in Bangladesh,” Hindu, December 26, 2011.

  47. Yousaf Saraf, “Kashmir Fight for Freedom,” Kashmiri Info, October 27, 2006, http://www .kashmiri.info/Kashmir-Fight-for-Freedom-by-Yousaf-Saraf/sh-abdullah-in-pakistan.html.

  48. Cited by Bal Raj Madhok, Kashmir: The Storm Center of the World (Houston: A. Ghosh, 1992), citing Aatish-e Chinar (in Urdu) (Srinagar: Ali Muhammad & Sons, 1982).

  49. Victoria Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan and the Unending War, rev. ed. (London: I. B. Tauris, 2003), 106.

  50. All that made Jammu and Kashmir different from other states of the Indian Union was its red flag with a plow and three vertical stripes and the ban on non-Kashmiris buying property in the state or settling there.

  51. Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah, “Kashmir, India and Pakistan,” Foreign Affairs (April 1965).

  52. India protested to the United States against the use of these US-supplied arms; Washington fired off a protest in turn. But nothing changed.

  53. In February 1968, the arbitration committee awarded 10 percent of the Rann of Kutch to Pakistan.

  54. Cited in G. M. Hiranandani, “Chapter 3: The 1965 Indo Pakistan War,” in Transition to Triumph, October 15, 1999, http://indiannavy.nic.in/book/1965-indo-pakistan-war.

  55. Hiranandani, “The 1965 Indo Pakistan War.”

  Chapter 9: Shastri’s Tallest Order: Pakistan’s Nightmare Comes Alive

  1. Gibraltar is the Spanish derivative of the Arabic name Jabal Tariq, meaning “Mountain of Tariq,” an Arab general, who captured it in 711. It thus symbolizes the victory of Muslims over nonbelievers.

  2. Cited in Mahmood Shaam, “We Won the 1965 War, Not India,” Rediff India Abroad, September 6, 2005.

  3. “Battle of Hajipir Pass 1965,” Pakistan Defence, February 27, 2011, http://defence.pk/threads /battle-of-hajipir-pass-1965.95263. To maintain the utmost secrecy, Pakistan’s Inter-Services Intelligence Directorate did not take the pro-Pakistan elements in Kashmir into confidence, thus depriving the infiltrators of vital intelligence.

  4. Cited in Kuldip Nayar, India: The Critical Years (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1971), 214.

  5. Cited in G. M. Hiranandani, “Chapter 3: The 1965 Indo Pakistan War,” in Transition to Triumph, October 15, 1999, http://indiannavy.nic.in/book/1965-indo-pakistan-war.

  6. Cited in ibid., quoting P. V. R. Rao, the defense secretary.

  7. A. H. Amin, “Grand Slam—A Battle of Lost Opportunities,” Defence Journal (Karachi), September 2000.

  8. Cited in Chintamani Mahapatra, “American Activism on the Kashmir Question,” Strategic Analysis 21, no. 7 (October 1997): 987–997.

  9. Cited in Nayar, India, 218.

  10. Cited in Farzana Shaikh, Making Sense of Pakistan (London: Hurst & Company, 2009), 160.

  11. In any case, the term “international communism” lost its monolithic connotation in 1963, when China started challenging the Soviet occupation of part of its border areas, and the communist neighbors started beefing up their forces in the disputed frontier regions.

  12. Shaam, “We Won the 1965 War.”

  13. Later, September 6 was named Defense Day in Pakistan, when homage is paid to the martyrs of the 1965 conflict at the war memorials built in most cities, with the electronic media airing special programs and newspapers publishing bulky supplements to remember the war dead.

  14. Harshvardhan Pande, “The Battle of Asal Uttar—1965,” Great Indian War Stories (blog), May 14, 2010, http://greatindianwarstories.blogspot.co.uk/2010/05/battle-of-asal-uttar-1965.html. Thirty-two tanks, including twenty-eight Pattons, were in working condition.

  15. Harbakhsh Singh, In th
e Line of Duty: A Soldier Remembers (Delhi: Lancer, 2000), 253.

  16. Shaam, “We Won the 1965 War.”

  17. Nayar, India, 237.

  18. Ramachandra Guha, India After Gandhi: The History of the World’s Largest Democracy (London: Macmillan, 2007 / New York: Harper Perennial, 2008), 398.

  19. Shaam, “We Won the 1965 War.”

  20. George Ginsburgs and Robert M. Slusser, eds., A Calendar of Soviet Treaties: 1958–1973 (Rockville, MD: Sijthoff & Noordhoff, 1981), 319.

  21. Of the Security Council’s eleven members, only one—Jordan—abstained.

  22. Herbert Feldman, From Crisis to Crisis: Pakistan, 1962–1969 (Karachi: Oxford University Press, 1972), 146.

  23. The breakdown of India’s gain in Pakistan was the following: the Sailkot sector, 180 square miles; the Lahore sector, 140 square miles; and Sindh, 150 square miles.

  24. David Van Praagh, The Greater Game: India’s Race with Destiny and China (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2003), 294.

  25. Cited in Adrian Levy and Catherine Scott-Clark, Deception: Pakistan, the United States and the Secret Trade in Nuclear Weapons (New York: Walker & Company, 2007), 18.

  26. Nayar, India, 240.

  27. The exchange rate of Rs 5 = US$1 changed to Rs 7.576 = US$1. India’s defense spending in 1965–1966 rose sharply, to 24 percent of its total expenditure.

  28. Bound by a no-war pact, India might have thought twice before waging a war in East Pakistan in 1971.

  29. Katia Zatu Liverter, “Part 1: Russia as Mediator: Imperial and Soviet Times,” RT Comment, July 15, 2011.

  30. Altaf Gauhar, Ayub Khan, Pakistan’s First Military Ruler (Lahore: Sang-e-Meel Publications, 1993), 386–387.

  31. His newly acquired fondness for the Soviet Union led Ayub Khan to ban the showing of the anti-Russian James Bond movie From Russia with Love.

  32. “Official Text of the Tashkent Declaration 1966,” http://www.stimson.org/research-pages /tashkent-declaration.

  33. Cited in Lubna Abid Ali, “Towards the Tashkent Declaration,” South Asian Studies 28, no. 2 (2008).

  34. Mohammed Asghar Khan, The First Round, Indo-Pakistan War 1965 (New Delhi: Vikas, 1979), 120–121.

  35. Nayar, India, 252.

  36. Ibid., 250.

  37. Ibid., 254.

  38. Kuldip Nayar, “The Night Shastri Died and Other Stories,” Outlook (Delhi), July 9, 2012.

  39. Cited in Abid Ali, “Towards the Tashkent Declaration.”

  40. Whereas Rawalpindi was the executive capital of Pakistan, Dacca was its legislative capital.

  41. Siyasi Mubassir, “Zulfikar Ali Bhutto Revisited Part I (1956–1966),” Pakistan Link, February 5, 2005, http://pakistanlink.org/Opinion/2005/Feb05/24/03.htm.

  42. A. G. Noorani, “Lyndon Johnson and India,” Frontline (Chennai), May 12–25, 2001.

  43. See Chapter 8, p. 174.

  44. B. Raman, The Kaoboys of R&AW: Down Memory Lane (New Delhi: Lancer, 2008), 127.

  45. Ashok Raina, Inside RAW: The Story of India’s Secret Service (New Delhi: Vikas, 1981), 53–54.

  46. “1970 Polls: When Election Results Created a Storm,” Dawn (Karachi), January 8, 2012.

  47. Cited in Ramchandra Guha, India After Gandhi: The History of the World’s Largest Democracy (London: Macmillan, 2007), 453, quoting a secret report by RAW in January 1971, entitled “Threat of Military Attack or Infiltration Campaign by Pakistan.”

  48. Later Yahya Khan would also jail Zulfikar Ali Bhutto after the latter had criticized him for mishandling the situation in East Pakistan.

  Chapter 10: Indira Gandhi Slays the Two-Nation Theory

  1. Cited in Vivek Guamste, “The Hindu Genocide That Hindus and the World Forgot,” India Tribune, 2012.

  2. Cited in A. G. Noorani, “The Mystique of Archives,” Hindu, March 1, 2003.

  3. Cited in Ramchandra Guha, India After Gandhi: The History of the World’s Largest Democracy (London: Macmillan, 2007 / New York: Harper Perennial, 2008), 452.

  4. A. A. K. Niazi, Betrayal of East Pakistan (New Delhi: Manohar Books, 1998), 78.

  5. Born to Christian parents in the Western Indian city of Belgaum, Anthony Mascarenhas graduated from St. Patrick’s College in Karachi and settled in the city after partition, starting out as a journalist with the state-owned Associated Press of Pakistan.

  6. Cited by Mark Dummett, “Bangladesh War: The Article That Changed History,” BBC News, December 16, 2011.

  7. Dummett, “Bangladesh War.” While working for the Sunday Times in London, Anthony Mascarenhas published his book Rape of Bangladesh in 1972.

  8. “Nixon’s Dislike of ‘Witch’ Indira,” BBC News, June 29, 2005.

  9. “Sino-Soviet Border Clashes,” Global Security, n.d., http://www.globalsecurity.org/military /world/war/prc-soviet.htm.

  10. Praveen Swami, “India’s Secret War in Bangladesh,” Hindu, December 26, 2011.

  11. Indian military trainers set up six camps for recruiting and training volunteers as saboteurs. At one camp, some three thousand young men had to wait up to two months for induction. Claude Arpi, “1971 War: How the US Tried to Corner India,” Rediff India Abroad, December 26, 2006.

  12. Cited in Guha, India After Gandhi, 456.

  13. By then, the Soviet Union had become India’s largest supplier of arms while becoming the biggest single buyer of Indian goods. Dilip Hiro, Inside India Today (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1976 / New York: Monthly Review Press, 1977), 251.

  14. Cited in ibid., 251.

  15. Arpi, “1971 War.”

  16. Cited in Guha, India After Gandhi, 455.

  17. “Mukti Bahini,” Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh, n.d., http://www.bpedia.org /M_0380.php.

  18. Arpi, “1971 War.”

  19. Noorani, “The Mystique of Archives.”

  20. Richard Nixon, “Remarks of Welcome to Prime Minister Indira Gandhi of India, November 4, 1971,” http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=3208.

  21. “Nixon’s Dislike of ‘Witch’ Indira.”

  22. Arpi, “1971 War.”

  23. Adrian Levy and Catherine Scott-Clark, Deception: Pakistan, the United States and the Secret Trade in Nuclear Weapons (New York: Walker & Company, 2007), 61.

  24. Praveen Swami, “Fighting Pakistan’s ‘Informal War,’” Hindu, July 15, 2008.

  25. Praveen Swami, “India’s Secret War in Bangladesh,” Hindu, December 26, 2011.

  26. Sarmila Bose, “The Courageous Pak Army Stand on the Eastern Front,” Mianwali Online, n.d., http://www.mianwalionline.com/personalities/genniazi/AAKNiazi.shtml#Op-Ed.

  27. Blema S. Seinburg, Women in Power: The Personality and Leadership Style of India Gandhi (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2008), 36.

  28. Cited in Noorani, “The Mystique of Archives.”

  29. Ibid.

  30. Anatoly Dobrynin, In Confidence: Moscow’s Ambassador to Six Cold War Presidents (New York: Crown, 1995), 237.

  31. Sajit Gandhi, ed., “The Tilt: The US and the South Asian Crisis of 1971,” National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 79, December 16, 2002, http://www2.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB /NSAEBB79/.

  32. Later this became known as the Blood Telegram. It would be used as the title of a book by Gary J. Bass in 2013.

  33. Ghazala Akbar, “Why the Seventh Fleet Was Sent to the Indian Ocean in 1971,” Pakistan Link, January 2012, http://pakistanlink.org/Commentary/2012/Jan12/20/01.HTM.

  34. Swami, “India’s Secret War.”

  35. “Niazi Signed the Instrument of Surrender with General Aurora on December 16, 1971, at Dacca,” Daily Star (Bangladesh), May 4, 2005.

  36. Bose, “The Courageous Pak Army.”

  37. “The Rediff Interview: Lt Gen A. A. Khan Niazi,” Rediff News (Mumbai), February 2, 2004.
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  38. Cited in Tariq Ali, The Duel: Pakistan on the Flight Path of American Power (New York: Scribner, 2008), 206.

  39. Official websites of the Indian and Pakistani defense ministries are www.mod.nic.in and www .mod.gov.pk, respectively.

  40. The Report of the Hamoodur Rehman Commission of Inquiry into the 1971 War (Lahore: Vanguard, 2001), 317, 340.

  41. David Frost interview with Shaikh Mujibur Rahman aired on January 18, 1972; see http://groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/mukto-mona/conversations/topics/5108.

  42. Richard Sisson and Leo E. Rose, War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 360n24.

  43. Sarmila Bose, Dead Reckoning: Memories of the 1971 Bangladesh War (New York: Columbia University Press, 2011), 181.

  44. Ziad Obermeyer, Christopher J. L. Murray, and Emmanuela Gakidou, “Fifty Years of Violent War Deaths from Vietnam to Bosnia: Analysis of Data from the World Health Survey Programme,” British Medical Journal, June 26, 2008.

  45. F. B. Ali, “The Coup of 19 December 1971: How General Yahya Was Removed from Power,” Pakistan Patriots (blog), June 21, 2013, http://pakistanpatriots.wordpress.com/2013/06/21/the-coup-of -19-december-1971-how-general-yahya-was-removed-from-power/.

  46. Syed Badrul Ahsan, “Pakistan in December 1971,” Daily Star (Bangladesh), December 19, 2012.

  47. Tammy Kinsey, “Garam Hawa,” Film Reference, n.d., http://www.filmreference.com/Films -Fr-Go/Garam-Hawa.html.

  Chapter 11: Zulfikar Ali Bhutto: The Savior of West Pakistan

  1. See p. 196.

  2. Syed Badrul Ahsan, “Pakistan in December 1971,” Daily Star (Bangladesh), December 19, 2012.

  3. Adrian Levy and Catherine Scott-Clark, Deception: Pakistan, the United States and the Secret Trade in Nuclear Weapons (New York: Walker & Company, 2007), 19–20.

  4. “When Benazir Bhutto Enjoyed Pakeezah in Shimla,” IANS, May 13, 2012, http://www.ummid .com/news/2012/May/13.05.2012/benazir_bhutto_in_shimla.htm.

  5. Cited in Victoria Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan and the Unending War, rev. ed. (London: I. B. Tauris, 2003), 127.