by Bower, Tom
CHAPTER 3: THE CRUSADE
29“redolent of Dickensian.” TB/Ida Klaus.
31To forestall that. RG 169, FEA, Box 991 Margaret Clarke, Monograph, “The Safehaven Study,” p. 25.
On Klaus’s initiative. Ibid., p. 83.
“Anticipating defeat, enemy.” FO 371/45812.
32Tellingly, the diplomats. Clarke, “Safehaven Study,” p. 93.
“Where voluntary cooperation.” Ibid., p. 123.
“would not be.” Ibid., p. 124.
“investigate and report.” FO 371/40579 August 23 and September 28, 1944.
Seeking out journalists. Clarke, “Safehaven Study,” p. 42; FO 371 40579, telegram sent by State Department to foreign legations, August 23, 1944.
Flying from London. FO 371/40579 August 23, 1944.
33Their reception seemed. TB/Cummings. Cummings says that, contrary to the Clarke report, he and Klaus did visit Switzerland during that trip. See Clarke, “Safehaven Study,” p. 48.
34The Swiss, as. FO 371/49714 March 1, 1945.
37The country’s predominant. FO 192/199 January 31, 1947. “either German agents.” RG 226 Records of the OSS “Enemy Agents and the Red Cross” Box 1.
“finely developed net.” RG 260 OMGUS Records of Property Division, German intelligence, Switzerland-German Assets Misc. Box 654.
38Glad to receive. RG 59 800.515/4–1246, State Department German Safehaven Operations in Switzerland April 22, 1946.
“as thoroughly reliable.” RG 131 Foreign Funds Control Safehaven, E 060764 and E 060735 March 5, 1941.
The Germans hoped. FO 371/45812.
38To protect those. E 7160 (A) i 1968/54 Bd 23 (Nr 1–91) February 6, 1947.
39The only trace. RG 260 OMGUS Property Control Box 653; RG 59 1945–9 Box 4205 May 6, 1946.
The Swiss lawyer. Safehaven Report, February 1946.
a “patriotic duty.” FO 1031/89 page 14.
Thereafter, Iselin was. FO 935/18.
In London and. Other specialist fences identified by the British were Bankhaus Ernst Lochman, Bankhaus J. von Tobel and Bank von Ernst in Zurich. Ruegg’s accomplices were paid to swear affidavits that German assets in Sweden had been purchased or were owned by Swiss corporations and nationals since 1940. The bank sold the assets as Swiss property and transferred the proceeds through the Enskilda Bank and Gotsland Bank in Stockholm back to Switzerland. (RG 131 Foreign Funds Control, Safehaven Report, October 15, 1945.) Alternatively, Ruegg transferred German money out of Switzerland by selling sanitized share certificates accompanied by false affidavits to the Enskilda Bank in Sweden. (RG 131 Foreign Funds Control Box 382 Safehaven Report 481, October 15, 1945; Nicholas Faith, Safety in Numbers [Hamish Hamilton, 1982], p. 118.)
40The announcement that. FO 371/45812.
By December 31. SF450 million by the end of 1941 and SF650 million by June 30, 1942; FO 371/49714 March 1, 1945.
41As the war. RG 260 OMGUS Records of Property Division, German intelligence, Switzerland-German Assets Misc. Box 654. By the end. U.S. Treasury, Currie Mission File March 22, 1945.
In London, the. FO 371/34875 May 3, 1943.
In Bern, the. FO 192/198 “Swiss trade policy during the war, Zurich 1946.”
42Their subsequent explanation. E 7160 (A) i 1968/54 Sitzung 9.9. 1947.
43Posing as the. Faith, Safety in Numbers, p. 49.
The bankers could. E 2001 (E) 1968/79 Bd 2 September 21, 1948.
43No one, however, was. E 7160–01 1968/223 Bd 214 April 28, 1947, Stucki’s inquiry about Göring’s bank deposits.
The more sophisticated. RG 131 Foreign Funds Control, Box 382, State Department, “Types of Financial Operations in Switzerland”; U.S. Control Martin Bronfenbrenner, Memorandum from Delman, November 18, 1943; and “Switzerland, the Reich’s foremost supplier of foreign exchange.” Economic Warfare (Intelligence) Series 588, December 9, 1942.
44A Swiss investigation. RG 59 1945–9 Box 4218 Walter Ostrow, Memorandum for the Files, Bern February 25, 1947; and March 4, 1947. U.S. Treasury Dept re Swiss banks and Safehaven. The pressure was from Bundesrat Stampfli.
“a better system.” U.S. Treasury, re Swiss banks and Safehaven, Mann memorandum March 5, 1947.
Regularly, Allied intelligence. RG 131 Foreign Funds Control, SHAEF Report November 7, 1944.
Buehrle and other. RG 266 Records of OSS, interview with Meck May 27, 1946.
The Reichsbank’s ledgers. RG 266 Records of OSS, interview with Landwehr May 27, 1946.
45“pro-Fascist financial operators.” RG 169 Entry 141A Box 1419 January 5, 1945.
Echoing Sholes and. Clarke, “Safehaven Study.” p. 131.
Both banks controlled. U.S. Treasury re Swiss banks and Safehaven June 3, 1947.
46Passing information to. U.S. Treasury, “Switzerland and the Axis February 1, 1943: Schmidt-Branden file,” May 28, 1945.
47“over-persuaded [by] Swiss. FO 371/34875 April 20, 1943. Foot’s “severe warning.” FO 371/34875 April 16, 1943.
48“our action is.” Ibid.
To emphasize its. FO 371/34875 April 21, 1943.
“make agreements with.” FO 371/34878 February 18, 1943.
49Since he had. FO 371/39844 August 28, 1944; FO 371/34875 May 21, 1943.
Allied sanctions were. FO 371/34877 November 18, 1943.
CHAPTER 4: LOOTED GOLD
52On the eve. FO 371/45749 November 1945; FO 837/1173 June 18, 1949.
53Asked why the. RG 59 State Department 800.515/12–0942.
That would prove. RG 59 State Department 800.515/1–1845.
54Identified Swiss traders. RG 59 State Department 800.515/11–2044.
Other Swiss traders. RG 319 Records of the Army Staff reports and Messages, 1918–51 to State Department. Switzerland, 12/2/46–3/31/47 Bx 1062; Hutzler of Spohnhols Bank of Berlin Box 1016.
Sympathetic Swiss customs. RG 131 Foreign Funds Control Box 382, FEA “Looted Art in Occupied Territories, Neutral Countries and Latin America,” May 5, 1945 by James Plaut.
55The Swedish government. FFC report, August 1943.
To the Reichsbank. Werner Rings, Raubgold aus Deutschland (Zurich, 1985), pp. 51, 70.
“if the gold.” Ibid., p. 52.
“One cannot discover.” Ibid., p. 48.
56Weber chose again. Vogler report, “Der Goldverkehr der Schweizerischen Nationalbank mit der Deutschen Reichsbank 1939/45,” September 1984.
“clearly without enthusiasm.” FO 371/40579 January 1944.
Spain’s had risen. FO 371/65002 April 7, 1947.
“unlawful disposition of.” FO 371/40579 February 22, 1944.
57The only precaution. Vogler report.
Isolated in Bern. RG 59 1945–9 Box 4206 Gold Swiss reaction to February 1944 declaration p. 6.
Considering that over. RG 131 Foreign Funds Control Box 380, Swiss president’s speech May 1944.
provide “unchallengeable sanctuaries.” FO 371/40579 June 5, 1944.
58When the prospect. RG 131 1942–0 Box 51 July 1944.
In a series. FO 371/39169 June 20, 1944.
58Indifferent to the. FO 371/39844 August 28, 1944.
Morgenthau again asked. RG 59 1945–9 Box 4206 Gold Swiss reaction to February 1944 declaration p. 6 August 23, 1944.
“I do not.” FO 371/39169 July 7, 1944.
“Tight and capable.” TB/Cummings.
CHAPTER 5: “AN IMPENETRABLE RACKET”
59“In their dealings.” FO 371/39860 May 18, 1944.
“The Gestapo might.” RG 59 State Department to Bern embassy 800.515/8–2544.
60The flood of. RG 131 1942–0 Box 51 July 27, 1944.
be “very busy.” FO 371/40579 September 1944 from Troutbeck; FO 371/40996 September 16, 1944; Clarke, “Safehaven Study,” p. 46.
“Deportation means the.” Haesler, Lifeboat, p. 195.
61In September 1943. Ibid., p. 202.
Heroically, despite reprimanding. Martin Gilbert, The Holocaust (Collins, 1986), pp. 701–2, 752–5.
&nbs
p; bore “propaganda value.” Haesler, Lifeboat, p. 286.
62In Budapest, Eichmann. Yehuda Baur, Jews for Sale? (Yale University Press, 1994), p. 164.
Becher’s charm secured. National Zeitung Basel October 13, 1945; Baur, Jews for Sale?, p. 164 and passim.
63Swiss police confided. RG 266 Records of OSS, Eduard von der Heydt report.
“In the past.” Allemagne, Régime des biens allemands, série P9713, vol. III, pp. 43–6 bis.
The knowledge that. Allemagne, Régime des biens allemands, série P9713, vol. III, pp. 54–5.
“The Allied governments.” FO 371/39844 August 24, 1944.
64Orvis Schmidt, the. FO 371/39844 August 5, 1944.
65Endorsing that scheme. RG 131 Foreign Funds Control, Box 369.
65Blaming the “political.” RG 59 State Department 800.515/9–1944.
67“ready to be.” Clarke, “Safehaven Study,” p. 15.
In early January. U.S. Treasury re Swiss banks and Safehaven, report on Dr. Ricco Bessola in Latin America August 17, 1943.
The neutral was. State Department Instruction No. 4985 based on Executive Committee on Economic Foreign Policy December 8, 1944.
68“secure the objectives.” FO 371/45812 January 16, 1945.
“Any resurgence of.” FO 371/45812 January 15, 1945.
“we cannot disinterest.” FO 371/45750 February 27, 1945.
69“the impenetrability of.” RG 59 1945–9 Box 3660 800.515/1–1345 January 13, 1945.
“No Swiss banks.” State Department U.S. embassy Wellington, New Zealand January 15, 1945, Speech of Dr. Walter Schmidt. “it is quite.” RG 169 Entry 141A Box 1419 January 5, 1945.
In confirmation of. WO 219/1655 January 15, 1945.
70Similarly defiant, it. RG 260 OMGUS. Property Control Box 653; RG 59 1945–9 Box 4205 May 6, 1946.
carrying “large sums.” FEA/Treasury January 15, 1945.
Reports from Sweden. FDR Library February 3, 1945.
of stolen furs. FO 371/45750 February 6, 1945.
71His ideal solution. RG 56 U.S. Treasury, White to Morgenthau February 1945.
“of utmost importance.” RG 59 1945–9 Box 4179 800.515 13/2–1945 Bissell to Lyons February 19, 1945.
72Under the direction. RG 59 1945–9 Box 4206 Conduct of Swiss Banking Institutions, Interrogation of Walter Schellenberg.
Inevitably, his campaign. RG 59 1945–9 Box 4180 4F11 Bern March 2, 1945.
73“the sole international.” Faith, Safety in Numbers, p. 91.
74“I know in.” Roger Sandilands, The Life and Political Economy of Lauchlin Currie (Duke University Press, 1990), p. 138.
An urgent recommendation. RG 501 945–9 Box 3523 740.00112 EA/2–645 February 6, 1945 Huddle to State Department.
75Throughout the war. Relations bilatérales Suisse/France, Côte EU 29–8–3, vol. 59, pp. 162–9.
“is a noble.” New York Times, July 30, 1945, p. 6.
Regularly invited to. Commission permanante de conciliation Franco-Suisse, Côte EU 29–8–3 s/d, vol. 19, pp. 29–33.
“renowned as a.” FO 371/55574 January 1946.
76letter marked “urgent.” E 2 800(-) 1967/61 Bd 97.
77Stucki had delegated. 800.515/1–2645.
To secure Currie’s. T 236/1602 February 16, 1945.
78Naturally, the banks. E 7160 (A) i 1968/54 November 12, 1946. “sure that the.” E 7160 (A) i 1968/54 vol. 5 October 28, 1947.
79The Allied demand. Clarke, “Safehaven Study,” p. 143.
In Currie’s opinion. FO 371/45750 and Memorandum of Dr. Philippe Rossiez December 15, 1945. RG 319, Records of the Army Staff, Reports and Messages, 1918–51 State Department, Switzerland, Box 1058.
Under the agreement. T 236/1602 March 8, 1945.
all German shipments. FO 371/45812 March 8, 1945. The onus for proving ownership was on the shipper.
80“The Swiss government.” RG 59 1945–9 Box 4206 “Violation by the Swiss of March 1945 Agreement.”
eight-page letter. T 236/1602 March 8, 1945.
Currie’s euphoric telegram. FRUS 1945 vol. V, p. 782; Linus von Castlemur, Schweizerisch-Alliierre Finanzbeziehungen im Übergang vom Zweiten Welt Krieg (Chronos, 1992), p. 24 n. 27.
81“thwarted the Nazis.” Sandilands, Currie, p. 139.
practiced “virtual deceit.” RG 59 1945–9 Box 4234 September 5, 1947.
“This will have.” T 236/1602 March 26, 1945.
“We need to.” T 236/1602 February 15, 1945.
“You are not.” T 236/1602 February 22, 1945.
as “explosive stuff.” T 236/1602 March 2, 1945.
82“the rich Jew.” Vogler report, p. 17.
84“despite the enemy.” “Introduction,” Elimination of German Resources for War: Germany’s Relationship with Switzerland. Report of the Kilcore Committee, United States Senate, 1945.
84“did not ask.” U.S. War Crimes Office, Safehaven Report, Puhl statement November 17, 1945.
his “considerable achievement.” Cited, Introduction “Elimination of German resources for war”: Germany’s relationship with Switzerland.
85“very influential in.” U.S. Treasury, Currie Mission File March 22, 1945.
In the euphoria. RG 226 E183 Box 21; Schmidt to Rubin April 21, 1945.
In a continent. RG 131 1942–60 Box 51 Safehaven February and March 1945; FO 935 18 June 12, 1945.
A “sudden increase.” FO 837/1285 March 16, 1945.
“large amounts of.” FO 371/49710 February 22, 1945.
86“The Germans will.” FO 371/45750 March 16, 1945.
Quietly, the more. RG 260 OMGUS Property Control Box 653; RG 59 1945–9 Box 4205 May 6, 1946
CHAPTER 6: CRACKS
88“appearance of quiet.” RG 56 U.S. Treasury, Mann, Memorandum for the files May 29, 1945.
After two weeks. TB/Morton Bach.
89“Herman Kasper left.” RG 56 U.S. Treasury, Mann, Memorandum for the files May 29, 1945.
Switzerland’s “omissions,” “disregard.” RG 131 1942–50 Gordon to Schmidt Box 457 May 8, 1945.
All that remained. Clarke, “Safehaven Study,” p. 102.
Without a unified. Ibid., p. 190.
90So many senior. RG 226 Records of OSS Entry 90 Box 2 May 25, 1945.
“strictly confidential” letter. RG 56 U.S. Treasury, Ostrow and Mann to White May 29, 1945.
The declared deposits. New York Times November 25, 1946.
“hundreds of paintings.” Preliminary estimates of the Swiss-German Creditor-Debtor position. RG 59 1945–9 Box 4206.
91Asked by Safehaven. State Department Swiss Accord February 23, 1951.
Rapidly their inventory. U.S. OMGUS Finance branch, Currency Div. June 18, 1945.
91“This question may.” FO 371/40579 May 1944.
Henriques set the. Ibid.
93“dangerous to do.” Ibid.
Henriques’s prejudice appeared. RG 131 1942–60 Entry 74 Box 784 January 19, 1945.
Fearing “double odium.” FO 371/40579 June 5, 1944.
“Restitution of identifiable.” FO 371/40579 July 1944 Appx A to ACAO/P (44) 99 Armistice Administration Official Committee.
“One thing must.” FO 371/40579 July 26, 1944.
94“Information is so.” FO 371/40579 July 22, 1944.
“We shall doubtless.” FO 371/45750 April 13, 1945.
German property seized. FO 371/45750 March 28, 1945.
That, he knew. FO 1046/210 May 18, 1945.
95“to make money.” FO 371/45812 May 2, 1945.
“In my opinion.” FO 371/45812 May 18, 1945.
“to get financial.” FO 371/49676; FO 371 45813 August 7, 1945.
“If there’s no.” FO 371/45812.
96“so inadequate that.” RG 131 Foreign Funds Control, Schmidt to White June 1945.
97“They stand,” Lubin. T 236/1478 July 11, 1945.
98Abramovitz had previously. TB/Abramovitz.
“By treating the.” T 236/1478 July 18, 1945.
; 99“Switzerland must recognize.” FO 371/45813 August 7, 1945.
“If we take.” FO 371/45813 July 31, 1945.
“It will pay.” FO 371/45813 August 7, 1945.
100In the same. RG 59 1945–9 Box 4183 Telegram 3667 July 24, 1945.
“actual reasons for.” RG 319, Records of the Army Staff Reports and Messages 1918–51 Switzerland Box 1056 July 24, 1945.
101“It is galling.” Biens et interêts Suisse en France, sept. 1944-jan. 1949, Côte Z428–1–2. Z429–1, vol. 32, February 5, 1948.
103The obstacle, he. E 7160 (A) a 1968/223 Bd 36 (Direktionsprotokolle SVS) April 17, 1945.
“The banks say.” E 7160 (A) a 1968/223 Bd 36 (Direktionsprotokolle SVS) March 13, 1945.
“If we cannot.” E 7160 (A) a 1968/223 Bd 36 (Direktionsprotokolle SVS) April 28, 1945.
104“the role of.” E 2800 (-) 1967/61 Bd 88 (Banques Suisse) May 30, 1945.
“I’m astonished,” exploded. E 7160 (A) a 1968/223 Bd 36 (Direktionsprotokolle SVS).
105“We need them.” RG 131 Foreign Funds Control, General Corr. Box 382 October 18, 1945.
107“Switzerland gave the.” FO 935/18; FO 1046/210 August 14 and 29, 1945.
“so many and.” FO 371/48021 October 6, 1945.
“We cannot simply.” FO 371/45813 August 15, 1945.
“The quiet confidence.” FO 371/45814 November 1, 1945.
108“This is the.” FO 371/49729 August 30, 1945.
Kaehlitzhad emphasized. RG 59 1945–9 800.515 3/8 1945.
Ignoring the Americans’ irritation. Foreign Relations of the United States, 1945 vol. II, pp. 899–900.
CHAPTER 7: THE NAZIS’ FRIENDS
109To combat aggressive. FO 371/46766 September 15, 1945.
110“permanently [to] escape.” FO 371/55574 December 19, 1945.
American investigators in. U.S. Treasury, re: Swiss banks and Safehaven, Mann memorandum for the files June 3, 1947.
Schaefer launched a. New York Times, June 24, 1946, p. 35.
a “meaningless gesture.” FO 371/45813 September 1945.
111A case pursued. E 2001 (E) 1967/113 Bd 374 (111) November 6, 1950.
Foreign Office officials. FO 371/50443 September 6, 1945.
111A Jew like Frederick. RG 58, 1945–9 Box 4202 April 17, 1946.
112“I personally regard.” FO 371/45813 September 20, 1945.
“We’ll do it.” FO 371/45813 September 25, 1945.