51.Remy, Daemonolatreiae, 1.23.
52.De Lancre, Tableau, 2.1.12, 2.2.1, 2.3.1, 4.1.8.
53.James Kirkton, The Secret and True History of the Church of Scotland, ed. Charles Kirkpatrick Sharpe, Edinburgh, 1817, 421.
54.The reference for the survey is in n. 40. Many of the cases concerned can accessibly be read in detail in the Register of the Privy Council of Scotland, 2nd series, vols 3 and 8, and 3rd series, vol. 1; and in the Spalding Club Miscellany, vol. 1, Aberdeen, 1841.
55.Sneddon, Witchcraft and Magic in Ireland, 19, 32; Richard Suggett, A History of Magic and Witchcraft in Wales, Stroud, 2008, 16, 31–2.
56.G. J. Aungier (ed.), Croniques de London, Camden Society, 28, 1844, 3–4.
57.The first two cases are cited in Kittredge, Witchcraft in Old and New England, 175–6, 181, the third in more detail in the Fifth Report of the Royal Commission on Historical Manuscripts, London, 1876, Appendix, 455.
58.James Raine, ‘Proceedings Connected with a Remarkable Charge of Sorcery’, Archaeological Journal, 16 (1859), 75–81.
59.Somerset Heritage Centre, D/D/Cd/1, sub 1530.
60.The Examination and confession of certain Wytches at Chensford, London, 1566.
61.The question of which of these possibilities is the correct one is of course important, and Marion Gibson, Reading Witchcraft, London 1999, is the best book on the problems of determining this. It is not, however, one that matters much for the purposes of this book, which is concerned with the development of a cultural motif, irrespective of who exactly was responsible for a particular text in which it appears.
62.The Examination of John Walsh, London, 1566.
63.A detection of damnable driftes . . ., London, 1579; A Rehearsall both straung and true, of heinous and horrible actes . . ., London, 1579.
64.See W. W., A true and just Recorde, of the Information, Examination and Confession of all the Witches, taken at S. Oses in the countie of Essex, London, 1582; and The Apprehension and confession of three notorious witches, Arraigned and by justice condemned and executed at Chelmes-forde, in the Countye of Essex, London, 1589.
65.Ralph Holinshed et al., Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland, vol. 4 of 1808 edition, p. 892; Kent Archives Office, Fa/JQs/1 (bundle 104) and 23 (bundle 128).
66.I. D., The most wonderfull and true storie, of a certain Witch named Alse Gooderige of Stapenhill . . ., London, 1597.
67.This is apparent in A Rehearsall both straung and true . . ., sigs A5–A6; and W. W., A true and just Recorde, sigs 2A3, 2A8.
68.It features prominently in A true and just Recorde . . ., sigs 2A3, 2A8, C2, D2. The earliest known reference is in the court leet records of Southampton, for 1579, where it already seems treated as a well-known idea: first noticed by Cecil L’Estrange Ewen, Witchcraft and Demonianism, London, 1933, 75. In the account of the Essex trial of 1566, it was already thought that repeated pricking of a witch’s body to feed her familiar blood would leave a series of red marks: but there is no sign yet of one particular, well-concealed, mark. Those in the trial of 1566 were noticed on the woman’s face.
69.James VI and I, Daemonologie, Edinburgh, 1597, 80; William Perkins, A Discourse of the Damned Art of Witchcraft, Cambridge, 1608, 203; Thomas Cooper, The Mystery of Witch-Craft, London, 1617, 88.
70.For Edmonton, see Henry Goodcole, The wonderfull Discoverie of Elizabeth Sawyer, a Witch, London, 1621, sig. C3. The East Anglian records are summarized in Ewen, Witchcraft and Demonianism, 261–303; and many are reprinted in Malcolm Gaskill (ed.), English Witchcraft 1560–1736: The Matthew Hopkins Trials, London, 2003.
71.The most strange and admirable discoverie of the three Witches of Warboys, London, 1595, sig. O3.
72.I. D., The most wonderfull and true storie . . ., 8–9.
73.Witches Apprehended and Executed, London, 1613; The Witches of Northamptonshire, London, 1612.
74.Thomas Potts, The Wonderfull Discoverie of Witches in the Countie of Lancaster, London, 1613, sigs B2, B4, C2, R3.
75.William Grainge (ed.), Daemonologia, Harrogate, 1882, 78.
76.Sharpe, Instruments of Darkness, 179, 181–2; Ewen, Witchcraft and Demonianism, 244–51.
77.A True and Impartial Relation of the Informations against Three Witches, London, 1682, 23–5; Francis Bragge, A Full and Impartial Account of the Discovery of Sorcery and Witchcraft, London, 2nd edition, 1712, 11.
78.A True Narration of some of those witch-crafts which Marie, wife of Henry Smith, Glover, did practise . . ., London, 1616.
79.Goodcole, The wonderfull discoverie, sigs C2–C3.
80.British Library, Add. MS 27402, fo. 1176.
81.Ibid.
82.Wonderfull News from the North, London, 1650, 5.
83.The sources for these observations are the many works on local folklore published since 1800 which form the basis of Ronald Hutton, The Stations of the Sun, Oxford, 1996, and The Triumph of the Moon, Oxford, 1999, 84–111.
84.Especial honour, perhaps, is due to James Sharpe, long the presiding figure of studies of English witch trials, for launching the whole discussion, and to the American veterinary scientist James Serpell, who back in 2002 noted in passing the importance of the wider context of early modern European beliefs in servitor spirits and demons in animal shape, and the manner in which English beliefs developed in the Elizabethan period: see nn. 1–8, above. Among the younger scholars, both Charlotte-Rose Millar and Victoria Carr come out especially well, for looking to demonology as the most important single theme in the development of the English idea of the familiar.
ILLUSTRATION CREDITS
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INDEX
Abelam (people), New Guinea, (i)
Acts of the Apostles, (i)
Adam (Biblical figure), (i)
Aesop, (i)
Africa: witchcraft characteristics, (i), (ii); comparison with European witchcraft, (i); growing fear of witchcraft, (i); witch-hunts, (i), (ii); varied belief in magic, (i); witchcraft blamed for deaths, (i); and intimacy between victim and witch, (i); witchcraft seen as consequence of physical malady, (i); decline of colonialism, (i); and Christian missionaries, (i); Central, (i); animals and witches, (i)
Agobard, bishop of Lyons, (i)
Agrippa, Cornelius, (i), (ii)
Agrippina, (i)
agurtēs (Greek wandering beggar-priest), (i)
Alamanni: law code, (i)
Alexander the Great, (i)
Alexander IV, Pope, (i)
Alexander, Margaret, (i)
Alexandria, Egypt, (i)
Alfred the Great, King of Wessex, (i)
Algonquian tribes, North America, (i)
Alphabet of Ben Siri, (i)
Alpine region (Europe): witch trials, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); witch practices, (i)
Amazon basin: belief in misfortunes caused by activities of magicians, (i)
Amba (people), western Uganda, (i), (ii)
Ambrym Islanders, Central Melanesia, (i)
Ammianus Marcellinus, (i)
amulets, (i)
Andaman Islands, (i)
Aneu valley, Pyrenees, (i), (ii), (iii)
angels, (i)
Angerius, bishop of Conserans, (i)
Anglo-Saxons: and magic circle, (i); voc
abulary, witches and law codes, (i); belief in elves, (i), (ii)
Angola, (i)
animal familiars: in England, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); global, (i); powers, (i); in Scotland, (i); in Wales, (i); related to terrestrial spirits, (i)
animals (real): as aids to witches, (i), (ii); as demons, (i)
Anniviers valley, Alps, (i)
Anthony, St, (i)
anthropology: and witchcraft study, (i), (ii), (iii)
Antonio de Montolmo, (i)
Apache, Western (people), North America, (i), (ii)
Apollonius of Tyana, (i)
Apuleius of Madaura, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); Metamorphoses, (i)
Aquinas, St Thomas, (i), (ii), (iii)
Aquitaine, (i)
Arabs: on witches controlling evil spirits, (i); and ceremonial magic, (i), (ii)
Aragon, (i), (ii), (iii)
archangels, (i)
Arctic and sub-Arctic: shamanism, (i), (ii)
Arrow Odd’s Saga, (i)
ars notoria (‘notary art’), (i)
Artemis (Greek goddess), (i)
Arthur, King (legendary), (i), (ii), (iii)
Arthur of Little Britain (romance), (i), (ii)
Ashanti (people), Ghana, (i)
Ashforth, Adam, (i), (ii)
āshipu (Mesopotamian priestly functionary), (i)
Asia Minor: attitude to magic, (i)
Assyria: culture, (i); belief in witches, (i); demons in art, (i)
astrology: in Mesopotamia, (i), (ii); distribution, (i)
Athanasius, (i)
Athelstan, King of West Saxons, (i)
Athens (ancient): theatre, (i); curse tablets, (i)
Atinga cult, Ghana and Nigeria, (i), (ii)
Auberon (Oberon), fairy king, (i), (ii)
Aubrey, John, (i)
Augustine of Hippo, St, (i), (ii), (iii)
Augustus, Roman emperor, (i)
Austen, Ralph, (i)
Australia: belief in misfortunes caused by magicians, (i); animal pets suspected, (i)
Australia (Northern Territory): withcraft blamed for deaths, (i)
Austria: witch trials, (i)
Autun, France, (i)
Avalon, (i)
awenyddion (Welsh inspired persons), (i)
Azande (people), southern Sudan, (i), (ii), (iii)
Babylonia: culture, (i), (ii); belief in witches, (i)
Bailey, Michael, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
Bakweri (people), Cameroon, (i)
Balkans, (i)
Baltic region, (i), (ii), (iii)
Bamileke (people), Cameroon, (i), (ii)
Bamucapi witch-hunters, Central Africa, (i)
Bandini, Marco, (i)
Bangwa (people), Cameroon, (i), (ii)
Bangwatetse (people), Botswana, (i)
baptism (total): as way of detecting witches, (i)
Barotse (people), Congo, (i)
Bartolus of Sassoferrato, (i)
Basel: Church Council (1431–49), (i)
Basil of Caesarea, (i)
Basques: witch-hunt (1609–14), (i); witches adopt animal forms, (i); witches keep toads, (i)
Baxter, P.T.W., (i)
Beauvais, Philip of Dreux, bishop of, (i)
Behringer, Wolfgang: defines and studies witchcraft, (i), (ii); on ‘Shaman of Oberstorf’, (i), (ii), (iii); on night-roamers, (i), (ii), (iii); on medieval death-penalty for witchcraft, (i); on increasing prosperity in Middle Ages, (i); on folkloric motifs, (i); on trial of heretics, (i); on restoring animals to life, (i); Witches and Witch-Hunts: A Global History, (i)
Bemba (people), Zambia, (i)
benandanti: Ginzburg on shamanism of, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); practices, (i), (ii), (iii); outside influences on, (i); as ‘dream warriors’, (i)
Benedict XII, Pope, (i)
Berach, St, (i)
Bercovitch, Eytan, (i)
‘Berdok, King’, (i)
Berkeley, Gloucestershire, (i)
Bernadino of Siena, (i), (ii)
Berners, John Bourchier, 2nd Baron, (i)
Bertold of Regensburg, (i)
Bertoletti, Maurizio, (i)
Bes (Egyptian god), (i)
Bever, Edward, (i), (ii), (iii)
bewitchment: cures and counters, (i), (ii); recalled, (i); efficacy, (i)
Bible (Hebrew), (i), (ii)
Bible, Holy: condemns witchcraft, (i), (ii); and European culture, (i)
Binsbergen, Wim van, (i), (ii)
Blécourt, Willem de, (i)
blood sacrifices, (i)
Bodin, Jean, (i), (ii)
body (human): five components, (i)
Boguet, Henri: Discours des sorciers, (i)
Bohak, Gideon, (i)
Bolus of Mendes, (i), (ii)
Bordeaux, (i)
Borsje, Jacqueline, (i)
Botswana, (i)
Bougainville Island, Northern Solomons, (i)
Bourges, (i)
Boyman, Janet, (i), (ii)
Brescia, (i)
Briggs, Robin, (i), (ii), (iii)
Britain: witch trials in, (i), (ii), (iii); fairies and witches in, (i), (ii), (iii); see also England; Scotland; Wales
Brittany: witch prosecutions, (i)
bruja (brujo; Spanish witch), (i)
bruxas (Catalan nocturnal demons), (i)
Buchedd Collen (Welsh romance), (i)
Budge, Sir Wallis, (i)
bug: as term, (i)
Burchard, bishop of Worms, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
burials: unusual postures and grave-goods, (i)
Burma: women magicians, (i)
Burton, Robert, (i)
Byzantine Empire, (i), (ii)
Cade, Jack, (i)
Caernarvon: Roman fort, (i)
Caesar, Julius, (i)
Caesarius of Arles, (i)
Calatin (Irish warrior), (i)
Cameroon, (i), (ii); witchcraft laws, (i)
Canaanites, (i)
cannibalism, (i); by witches, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
Cannon, Dr Walter, (i)
canon Episcopi, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x)
Cape Province: animal familiars, (i)
Caray, Catherine, (i)
Carinthia, (i)
Cason, Joan, (i)
Catalonia, (i), (ii), (iii)
Cathars, (i), (ii)
Catholic Action movement, (i)
cats: witches ride on, (i); as devil, (i)
Catullus, (i)
caul, (i)
Celsus, (i), (ii)
Celtic languages: in Britain, (i)
Celtic regions and Celts: and nocturnal goddesses, (i); identified, (i); witches and trials in, (i), (ii); and murderous hag, (i)
Central America: animal familiars, (i)
Chaldean Oracles, (i)
Chalons sur Marne, (i)
changelings, (i), (ii), (iii)
Channel Islands, (i)
Charlemagne, Holy Roman Emperor, (i)
charms, (i); healing and protective, (i), (ii)
Chaucer, Geoffrey, (i), (ii)
Chavunduka, Gordon, (i)
Cheremises (people), Russia, (i)
Cherokee (people), North America, (i)
Chestre, Thomas: Sir Launfal, (i)
children and babies: accused of witchcraft, (i); killed as witches, (i); accusations forbidden, (i); blamed for misfortunes in Congo, (i); killed by demons and witches, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii)
China: little witchcraft information, (i); witch-hunts, (i)
Christianity: and witch-hunts and trials, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); features incorporated into witchcraft concept, (i), (ii); missionary activities, (i); demons and exorcism, (i), (ii); on polarisation of good and evil, (i); evangelical literal belief in Devil, (i); in Europe, (i), (ii), (iii); and ceremonial magic, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi); in Egypt, (i); attacked by Celsus, (i); persecuted in Roman Empire, (i); redefines magic, (i), (ii); adopted as Roman
religion, (i), (ii); and Roman suppression of magic, (i); not threatened by magic practitioners, (i); stereotypes of demonic heretics and magicians, (i); expansion, (i); divisions, (i); Orthodox, (i); in Alpine belief system, (i); in Scottish witch trials, (i); early medieval belief in magic, (i); attitude to pagan beliefs, (i); see also Roman Catholicism
Christsonday (angel), (i)
Chronicle of the Year 354 (Roman), (i)
Chukchi (people), Siberia, (i)
Chuvashes (people), Russia, (i)
Cicero, (i)
Circe (mythological figure), (i), (ii)
circle (and circumambulation): arcane importance, (i)
clairvoyance, (i)
Clark, Stuart, (i)
Claros, Asia Minor, (i)
Clement VI, Pope, (i)
Clement VIII, Pope, (i)
Clifford, Rosamund (Fair Rosamund), (i)
Clovis, King of the Franks, (i)
Cochiti tribe, New Mexico, (i)
Cohn, Norman, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii)
Cologne, (i)
Columcille, St, (i)
Congo: child witches, (i)
Congo Valley: elderly witches, (i)
consciousness: altered state of, (i)
Constantius II, Roman Enperor, (i)
Copts, (i), (ii)
Cornwall: witch prosecutions, (i)
cosmologies: in different cultures, (i)
coven (word), (i)
Cowie, Janet, (i)
cresnichi (or vucodlachi), (i)
Crick, Malcolm, (i)
Croatia, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv)
Cú Chulainn (Ulster hero), (i)
Culhwch ac Olwen (Welsh romance), (i)
cunning woman or man: as term, (i)
curse tablets: in ancient Greece and Rome, (i), (ii); in southwest France, (i); and attempts to harm others, (i); see also spells and curses
Dalmatia, (i), (ii)
Damascius, (i)
Dang (people), central India, (i)
day sorcerers, (i)
Dead Sea Scrolls, (i)
dead, the: seen as objects of terror, (i); wandering (groups), (i); and fairies, (i)
Dee, John, (i)
Defoe, Daniel, (i)
Déima movement, Ivory Coast, (i)
deities (gods): of supreme power, (i); invoked in Egyptian Greek magical papyri, (i)
Dekker, Thomas, (i)
demons and demonesses: Mesopotamian belief in, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv), (v); pacts with magicians, (i), (ii), (iii); used for good ends, (i); and early Christianity, (i), (ii), (iii), (iv); Roman view of, (i); categories, (i); invoked, (i); and animal forms, (i), (ii), (iii); Islamic control of, (i); in animal form in England, (i); assist witches, (i); English and Scots view of, (i); child-killing, (i)
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