6. Author interview with Jacquelyn Stoner; “Protesters Delay Buses at Fairdale,” Louisville Times, September 5, 1975.
7. Chris Kenning, “The Firing of a Popular High School Principal,” Louisville Courier-Journal, November 27, 2002.
8. No Advance Program: Hampton v. Jefferson County, 72 F. Supp. 2d 753 (1999), transcripts, volume 7, 130, US District Court-Western District of Kentucky.
9. Veda Morgan, “Group Steps Up School-Integration Fight,” Louisville Courier-Journal, August 16, 1996.
Chapter 3
1. “Time Blurs His Words, but King’s Influence on Region Endures,” Louisville Courier-Journal, May 4, 1993.
2. Kentucky State Legislature website, “State Song,” http://www.lrc.ky.gov/.
3. “African Americans,” in The Encyclopedia of Louisville, John E. Kleber, ed. (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2000); see also, J. Blaine Hudson and Bonetta M. Hines-Hudson, “A Study of the Contemporary Racial Attitudes of Whites and African Americans,” Western Journal of Black Studies 23 (1999).
4. Author interview with Robert Douglas, June 15, 2009.
5. Based in part on author interviews with Darryl Owens, November 3, 2009; John Whiting, January 13, 2010; Mattie Jones, January 16, 2010; Georgia Powers, January 18, 2010; Raoul Cunningham, April 3, 2009.
6. “Powers, Ingwerson Cover No New Ground at Meeting on Plan to End Busing,” Louisville Courier-Journal, November 2, 1991.
7. Details of Carman Weathers’s life from author interviews with Carman Weathers, June 17 and August 19, 2009.
8. Details of Robert Douglas’s life from author interviews with Robert Douglas, June 15, June 16, and August 19, 2009.
9. Details of Fran Thomas’s life from author interview with Fran Thomas and Loueva Moss, October 31, 2009, and author interview with Fran Thomas, January 2012.
10. “Proposal for Police Review Board Stirs Debate,” Louisville Courier-Journal, July 30, 1993.
11. “Racism Alleged in Hiring of Schools Chief,” Louisville Courier-Journal, August 21, 1993.
12. “Call in Enrollment,” Jefferson County Public Schools, September 9, 1994, Robert Douglas private collection.
13. Details of Riccardo X’s life from author interviews with Riccardo X, November 2, 2009, April 15, 2010, and January 2012.
14. “Racial Imbalance Forces 10 Blacks to Leave Central,” Louisville Courier-Journal, September 23, 1994.
15. “Central Racial Limits Spur Emotional Debate,” Louisville Courier-Journal, October 25, 1994.
16. Wade Hall, The Rest of the Dream: The Black Odyssey of Lyman Johnson (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1988), 83.
17. Ibid., 162.
18. Richard Wilson, “Year-long Battle in 1949 Paved Way for Integration of Kentucky’s Universities,” Louisville Courier-Journal, February 2, 1977.
19. Hall, Rest of the Dream, 72.
20. “Central Racial Limits.”
21. Ibid.
22. Don Terry, “The March on Washington: The Organizer; In the End, Farrakhan Has His Day in the Sun,” New York Times, October 17, 1995.
23. Ibid.
24. Don Terry, “Family Values; Marching to the Beat of a Million Drummers,” New York Times, October 15, 1995.
25. Lee Sigelman and Susan Welch, Black Americans’ Views of Racial Inequality: The Dream Deferred (NY: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 24–26, 35.
26. Katherine Magnuson and Jane Waldfogel, eds., Steady Gains and Stalled Progress (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 2008), 1–11.
27. US Census Bureau, Black Americans: A Profile (Washington, DC: US Department of Commerce, 1993), http://www.census.gov/.
28. Melanye T. Price, Dreaming Blackness: Black Nationalism and African American Public Opinion (New York: New York University Press, 2009), 105.
29. Ibid., 185.
30. Rosemary L. Bray, “The Way We Live: An African-American Life; Claiming a Culture,” New York Times, April 23, 1989.
31. Barbara Kantrowitz, “A Is for Ashanti, B Is for Black,” Newsweek, September 23, 1991, 45; Yvonne Shinhoster Lamb, “Black Private Schools: Academics with a Twist; Christian, African Curriculums Taught in Small Classes,” Washington Post, August 29, 1991.
32. Shaun Hill, “Schools Urged to Adopt Afro-centric Curriculum,” Washington Post, February 2, 1989.
33. Kantrowitz, “A Is for Ashanti.”
34. Author interviews with Robert Douglas, Carman Weathers, Fran Thomas, and Riccardo X; meeting agendas and memos from the private collection of Robert Douglas.
35. Veda Morgan, “Group Steps Up School-Integration Fight,” Louisville Courier-Journal, August 16, 1996.
36. Author interviews with Douglas, Weathers, Thomas, and X; Douglas meeting agendas and memos.
37. “Petition for an Equitable Utilization of Central and Shawnee High Schools,” undated, Robert Douglas private collection.
38. “Request for Enrollment,” undated, Douglas private collection.
Chapter 4
1. Hall, Rest of the Dream, 7–10, 22-25, 29, 28.
2. Trip to the white school: ibid., 30–31.
3. Ibid., 30.
4. Ibid., 32, 42, 54.
5. C. Vann Woodward, Origins of the New South (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1951); John W. Cell, The Highest Stage of White Supremacy: The Origins of Segregation in South Africa and the American South (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1982); Nicholas Lemann, The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How It Changed America (New York: Knopf, 1991).
6. C. Vann Woodward, Reunion and Reaction: The Compromise of 1977 and the End of Reconstruction (New York: Oxford University Press, 1966).
7. James D. Anderson, The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860–1935 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 25–26.
8. Ibid., 5, 31; Vanessa Siddle Walker, Their Highest Potential: An African American School Community in the Segregated South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996), 37–38.
9. Anderson, Education of Blacks, 30; Thelma Cayne Tilford-Weathers, A History of Louisville Central High School, 1882–1982 (Louisville, KY: Central High School Alumni Association, 1982), 12; Vanessa Siddle Walker, “Valued Segregated Schools for African American Children in the South, 1935–1969: A Review of Common Themes and Characteristics,” Review of Educational Research 70, no. 3 (2000): 253–85.
10. Walker, Highest Potential, 3.
11. Adam Fairclough, A Class of Their Own: Black Teachers in the Segregated South (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 4.
12. Walker, Highest Potential, 205; Fairclough, Class of Their Own, 100.
13. Teacher qualifications: Fairclough, Class of Their Own, 224.
14. Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 US 537 (1896).
15. Booker T. Washington, Up from Slavery (New York: Dover, 1995), 102–12.
16. Fairclough, Class of Their Own, 92–95.
17. Hall, Rest of the Dream, 44, 150.
18. Ibid., 37, 47, 35.
19. Ibid., 42, 54.
20. For more about the Great Migration, see Lemann, The Promised Land.
21. George C. Wright, A History of Blacks in Kentucky, vol. 2, In Pursuit of Equality, 1890–1980 (Frankfort, KY: Kentucky Historical Society, 1992), 1–3.
Chapter 5
1. Louisville history: George H. Yater, “Louisville: A Historical Overview,” in Encyclopedia of Louisville, John E. Kleber, ed. (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2000).
2. Aaron D. Purcell, “Flood of 1937,” in Kleber, Encyclopedia of Louisville, 297.
3. Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America’s Struggle for Equality (New York: Vintage Books, 2004), 108–9; “Buchanan v. Warley,” in Kleber, Encyclopedia of Louisville, 139.
4. Ben F. Rogers, “William E. B. Du Bois, Marcus Garvey, and Pan-Africa,” Journal of Negro History 40, no. 2 (1955): 158.
5. Lee Sigelman and Susan Welch, Black Americans’ Vie
ws of Racial Inequality: The Dream Deferred (NY: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 19; Campbell Gibson and Kay Jung, Historical Census Statistics on Population Totals by Race, 1790 to 1990, and by Hispanic Origin, 1970 to 1990, for the United States, Regions, Divisions, and States (Washington, DC: US Census Bureau, September 2002), table 1, http://www.census.gov/. There were an estimated 10 million blacks in the United States in 1920.
6. Rogers, “William E. B. Du Bois,” 158–59.
7. “African Americans,” in Kleber, Encyclopedia of Louisville, 16.
8. “Great Depression,” in Kleber, Encyclopedia of Louisville, 354.
9. Thomas remembers Roosevelt coming to her school. Also see Eleanor Roosevelt, “My Day: First Lady Visits Projects in Louisville,” Atlanta Constitution, October 6, 1938.
10. Central’s early years: Thelma Cayne Tilford-Weathers, A History of Louisville Central High School, 1882–1982 (Louisville, KY: Central High School Alumni Association, 1982), 5–10.
11. Maude Brown Porter: author interviews with Central alumni from that era; Everett J. Mitchel II, “The Enforcer: Diminutive Teacher Was a Strict, No-Nonsense Disciplinarian,” Louisville Courier-Journal, February 10, 1987.
12. Central sports: Tilford-Weathers, A History of Louisville Central High School, 27–39.
13. Thanksgiving games from interviews with alumni; Central song lyrics: Tilford-Weathers, A History of Louisville Central High School, 58–59.
14. Municipal College: “African American Education,” in Kleber, Encyclopedia of Louisville, 13.
15. Jessie Halladay, “1965 Louisville Murder Solved without Arrest: Cold Case of Alberta Jones Finally Has a Suspect, but No Trial,” Louisville Courier-Journal, May 4, 2010; “Alberta O. Jones,” Notable African Americans Database, University of Kentucky, http://www.uky.edu/.
Chapter 6
1. Johnson in college: Wade Hall, The Rest of the Dream: The Black Odyssey of Lyman Johnson (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1988), 55–56.
2. Ibid., 59.
3. Adam Fairclough, A Class of Their Own: Black Teachers in the Segregated South (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 311; “Living Legend” lectures at University of Louisville, January 22, 1990, Lyman Johnson Papers, University of Louisville Library.
4. Fairclough, Class of Their Own, 309.
5. Ibid., 310, 226.
6. Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America’s Struggle for Equality (New York: Vintage Books, 2004), 91.
7. Ibid., 108–9.
8. Ibid., 100, 194–215.
9. Ibid., 258, 274, 290–97.
10. Hall, Rest of the Dream, 154–55; Richard Wilson, “Year-long Battle in 1949 Paved Way for Integration of Kentucky’s Universities,” Louisville Courier-Journal, February 2, 1977.
11. Catherine Fosl, Subversive Southerner: Anne Braden and the Struggle for Racial Justice in the Cold War South (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 86.
12. Ibid., 4, 13, 57–80.
13. George C. Wright, A History of Blacks in Kentucky, vol. 2, In Pursuit of Equality, 1890–1980 (Frankfort, KY: Kentucky Historical Society, 1992), 158.
14. Fosl, Subversive Southerner, 103–33.
15. Ibid., 136–37.
16. Tracy E. K’Meyer, Civil Rights in the Gateway to the South (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2009), 62–63, 137.
17. Ibid., 64; Fosl, Subversive Southerner, 139.
18. Fosl, Subversive Southerner, 139–41.
Chapter 7
1. Tracy E. K’Meyer, Civil Rights in the Gateway to the South (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2009), 35.
2. Wade Hall, The Rest of the Dream: The Black Odyssey of Lyman Johnson (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1988), 154.
3. Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America’s Struggle for Equality (New York: Vintage Books, 2004), 293–94.
4. For more detail on the five cases, see Kluger, Simple Justice.
5. Ibid., 574.
6. For details on Brown II, see ibid., 585–619.
7. Ibid., 659.
8. Charles Wollenberg, “Mendez v. Westminster: Race, Nationality and Segregation in California Schools,” California Historical Quarterly 53, no. 4 (Winter 1974): 317–32.
9. Kluger, Simple Justice, 210, 704.
10. Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, 347 US 483 (1954); Jack M. Balkin, What Brown v. Board of Education Should Have Said (New York: New York University Press, 2001), 40; Kluger, Simple Justice, 714.
11. Kluger, Simple Justice, 714–16.
12. Balkin, What Brown, 48.
13. Ibid., 11; James T. Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 68.
14. Balkin, What Brown, 11–13, 55–56.
15. Ibid., 64–68.
16. Catherine Fosl, Subversive Southerner: Anne Braden and the Struggle for Racial Justice in the Cold War South (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2002), 141–55.
17. Hall, Rest of the Dream, 142.
18. Fosl, Subversive Southerner, 151, 155–73, 175–85, 194–95.
19. Adam Fairclough, A Class of Their Own: Black Teachers in the Segregated South (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007), 4–5, 374–75; David S. Cecelski, Along Freedom Road: Hyde County, North Carolina and the Fate of Black Schools in the South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1994), 9–10.
20. Michael Murakami, “Desegregation,” in Public Opinion and Constitutional Controversy, Nathan Persily et al., eds. (NY: Oxford University Press, 2008), 23.
21. Lee Sigelman and Susan Welch, Black Americans’ Views of Racial Inequality: The Dream Deferred (NY: Cambridge University Press, 1991), 122.
22. Kluger, Simple Justice, 166.
23. W. E. B. Du Bois, “Does the Negro Need Separate Schools?” Journal of Negro Education 4, no. 3 (1935): 328–35.
24. Fairclough, Class of Their Own, 358.
25. Details of the Hyde County boycott from Cecelski, Along Freedom Road.
26. Fight for new building from Thelma Cayne Tilford-Weathers, A History of Louisville Central High School, 1882–1982 (Louisville, KY: Central High School Alumni Association, 1982), 16–17.
27. Details about Wilson from Hall, Rest of the Dream, 133; author interview with Wilson’s daughter, Susie Guess, November 4, 2009.
28. Tilford-Weathers, A History; Lourena Eaton, “Central High, ‘South’s Finest,’ Nearly Ready,” Louisville Courier-Journal, June 29, 1952.
29. Eaton, “Central High.”
Chapter 8
1. Details of first day of integration: Omer Carmichael and Weldon James, The Louisville Story (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1957); Male High School: “Male High School Gets Its Old Name Back; Integration Plans Also Adopted,” Louisville Courier-Journal (no date); “Louisville Male High School,” in The Encyclopedia of Louisville, John E. Kleber, ed. (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2000), 558.
2. Peter Irons, Jim Crow’s Children: The Broken Promise of the Brown Decision (New York: Penguin Books, 2002), 165–66, 177.
3. Details of Carmichael’s life from Carmichael, Louisville Story.
4. Tracy E. K’Meyer, Civil Rights in the Gateway to the South (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2009), 47.
5. Carmichael, Louisville Story.
6. Kleber, Encyclopedia of Louisville, xxix; also see urban renewal in chapter 9.
7. K’Meyer, Gateway, 53.
8. Ibid., 54.
9. “Parkland Area Redistricting Asked in Parents’ Petition,” Louisville Times, April 3, 1956.
10. Irons, Jim Crow’s Children, 165; John D. Mack, “Crowd Turns Back Negroes,” New York Times, September 11, 1956; K’Meyer, Gateway, 53.
11. Brown v. Board of Education, 349 US 294 (1955).
12. Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America’s Struggle for E
quality (New York: Vintage Books, 2004), 755; Kenneth O’Reilly, “Racial Integration: The Battle General Eisenhower Chose Not to Fight,” Journal of Blacks in Higher Education 18 (Winter 1997–98): 110–19; “Ike Non-committal on GOP Civil Rights Plank,” Chicago Daily Defender, August 9, 1956; “Ike Hedges on School Action,” Chicago Daily Defender, September 6, 1956.
13. See, for example, Josephine Ripley, “President Hopeful of Suez Solution,” Christian Science Monitor, August 8, 1956; Joseph A. Loftus, “The Farm Problem,” New York Times, September 10, 1955; “GOP’s Farm Belt Support Has Dropped Sharply Since 1952, Poll Indicates,” Washington Post, September 25, 1956.
14. Bradford Jacobs, “Adlai Chides Ike for Stand on Race Issue,” Baltimore Sun, September 12, 1956.
15. Carmichael and Eisenhower: “Transcript of Eisenhower’s News Conference on Foreign and Domestic Affairs,” New York Times, September 12, 1956; Bess Furman, “President Doubts Hearing Harms Capital Integration,” New York Times, September 21, 1956; Anthony Lewis, “President Scores Rioting in South,” New York Times, September 12, 1956; “Omer Carmichael Is Dead at 66; Head of Schools in Louisville,” New York Times, January 10, 1960, 86; “Education: How to Integrate,” Time, September 24, 1956; “Louisville’s Integrator: Omer Carmichael,” New York Times, September 10, 1956.
16. Carmichael, Louisville Story; K’Meyer, Gateway, 56.
17. History of white resistance to Brown v. Board of Education, including use of “school choice” to evade integration, from Davison M. Douglas, Reading, Writing and Race: The Desegregation of the Charlotte Schools (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1995); Adam Fairclough, A Class of Their Own: Black Teachers in the Segregated South (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2007); James T. Patterson, “Southern Whites Fight Back,” in Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy (NY: Oxford University Press, 2001).
18. Thelma Cayne Tilford-Weathers, A History of Louisville Central High School, 1882–1982 (Louisville, KY: Central High School Alumni Association, 1982),, 46.
19. Irons, Jim Crow’s Children, 188–89.
20. Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–1963 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988).
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