illegal, unreported, and unregulated (IUU) fishing 69, 72
illegal recruitment and migration 61
ILO Action Programme against Human Trafficking and Forced Labour in West Africa (ILOPATWA) 61
Indictment Court 225
individual deviant behaviour 423
Indonesian domestic workers see family reintegration
industrial labour 321
informal economy and human trafficking: definition and features 526–8; human trafficking and 528–31; introduction 526; summary of 531–2
informalisation of labour 529–30
information and communication technologies (ICTs) 146–7, 149–53
Initial Plan of Action against Trafficking in Persons (ECOWAS) 474
inquisitorial system 224
instrumental right 334
Inter-Agency Coordination Group against Trafficking in Persons (ICAT) 28, 475
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 262
Inter-American Court of Human Rights (2016) 4–5
Intergovernmental Organisations (IGOs) 25
International Act to Suppress White Slavery 506
international armed conflicts (IACs) 139
International Centre for Migration Policy Development (ICMPD) 311–12, 410
International Committee for Prostitutes’ Rights 488
International Committee of Jurists 490
International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women and Children (1921) 7–8
International Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Women of Full Age (1933) 8
International Convention for the Suppression of the White Slave Traffic (1910) 7
International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women 454
International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of Their Families 98
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (1966) 4
International Criminal Court (ICC) 4, 140, 330, 451
international criminal law (ICL) 138, 200–1, 208, 329, 330–1
International Crisis Group 147–8
international customary law 4
international humanitarian law (IHL) 138–40, 443
international human rights law (IHRL) 138, 140, 443, 451
international jurisdiction 232
International Labour Conference 464
International Labour Organization (ILO): anti-trafficking efforts 68, 87; Committee of Experts 462; conventions by 58–9; forced labour, defined 112; Forced Labour Convention 462; Forced Labour Protocol 174, 464; ground-breaking conventions of 425; informal labour market 526–8; overview of 31, 33, 54–5, 58; special procedures 435; vulnerability to trafficking 187; Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention 142
international law, lack of engagement 98–9
international law and practice 185–8
International Medical Congress (1873) 6
International Organisations (IOs): anti-trafficking measures 342, 348, 408, 437; country visits 46; exploitation through begging 161; funding from 63; informal economy and 529; initiatives by 443–4; labour exploitation 34; PKOs and 450; role of 426, 428; statistics on THB 381, 392; victim protection 128; see also nongovernmental organizations
International Organization for Migration (IOM) 70
International Red Cross and Red Crescent Code of Conduct 358
International Religious Freedom Act 359–60
international standards of non-punishment provision 172–7
international statistics on human trafficking: compliance with treaty obligations 389–91, 390; dark figure studies 386; discussion and recommendations 391–2; introduction to 381; offender-related statistics 387–8, 387–9; regional/county statistics 383, 383–6, 384, 385; victim-related statistics 382–6, 383, 384, 385
International Trade Union Confederation 461
Interpretative Note 194
interpretative paradigm 398
investigator role in common law systems 213–14
irrelevance of consent 191–2
irresistible force clause 172
Islamic State (ISIS/DAESH) 93, 98, 136–7
Issue Paper on The Concept of Exploitation in the Trafficking in Persons Protocol 370
Istanbul Convention 201
JA v. State of Israel (2007) 122
Jakobsen, Janet 356
Janie, Chuang 337
Jezile v. State 373
Joint Investigation Team (JIT) 160, 216
Jordan, Ann 253, 331, 333
judicial instruction 225
‘juju’ ceremonies 367–8
jus gentium 3
Juvenile Protection Unit in Cotonou 512
kafala system 56, 99–100
Kant, I. 13
Kempadoo 506
key informants 274
Khan, Khan and Khan judgment 57
kidnapping 34, 79, 214, 374
‘Kijkduin’ study conference 488
Kim, Eunjung 507
King’s Prosecutor 226–7
Kiss, L. 293–4
Klerx-Van Mierlo, F. 389
Kneebone, S. 207
knowledge production: bottom-up research on governance 399–403, 400; expert interviews 398–9; introduction to 395–7; professional habitus of criminal investigator 401–3; summary of 403–4; theoretical explanation 397–8
Kyriazi, Tenia 93
labour agencies 110
Labour Coordination Centres (LCCs) 70
labour exploitation/trafficking: Abeokuta’s quarry labour exploitation 515, 515–16; campaigns to address 423; cleaning industry demands 477–9; continuums of coercion 530; control and 539–40; demand for labour 477–80; employees’ need for labour 480–1; Finland 476–7; Foggian tomato labour exploitation 516–18, 517; global supply chains 463–4; introduction to 14–15, 15; legal strategies against trafficking 464–5; Middle East 95–6; mobility of 514–22, 515, 517; prevention efforts 475–6; recruiting 538; restaurant industry demands 479–80; summary of 481–2; victim perspective on 240–1; see also forced labour
Labour Law Auditor 226–7
Labour Protection Act (LPA) 70
Labour Protection in Sea Fishery Work 72–3
Labour Rights Promotion Network Foundation (LPN) 71
large-scale buyer exploitation 111
La Strada International 424
Latin America, human trafficking for ransom 149
Laudito Si: On Care for our Common Home (Pope Francis) 355
law enforcement challenges 23, 127–8
Law on the Protection of Wages 226
Law on the Well-Being of Workers 226
League of Nations 6
Legalist school 527
legal strategies against trafficking 464–5
letter of request (LOR) 215
Lindley, J. 80
local recruiters in HTOR 123–4
Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) 57
Luckmann, T. 395
Madrid Resolution 129
mandate-holders’ duties and obligations 432–4
Manolada forced labour case 462
Marriage Act (1974) 275
Marshall, A.R.C. 149
Marston, Sallie 322
Maslow, A. 244, 247
Massey, D. 324
McKinsey Global Institute 530
Medicus Clinic Case 122–3
Memoranda of Understanding (MoUs) 70
Memorandums of Understanding (MoU) 449
memory difficulty 243
mental health concerns: acute stress disorder 292, 296–7; depression and anxiety 292; introduction to 291; non-punishment provision and 171; overview of 291–3; post-trafficking surveys 293; post-traumatic stress disorder 292, 294, 296–8; post-traumatic stress syndrome 243; stressors and 293–6; treatment implications 296–8
Mexico, laws against trafficking 346
Middle East trafficking: armed conflict trafficking 97–8; camel racing 96�
��7; dominant typologies 94–8; employment sector regulations/distortions 100–1; international law, lack of engagement 98–9; introduction to 93; Kafala system 99–100; labour exploitation 95–6; lack of victim protection 101–2; region-specific areas of concern 98–102; sexual exploitation 94–5; summary of 102–3
Migrant Workers Act (WAV) 490–1
Migrant Workers Convention (MWC) 55
migration/migrant workers: as cause of human trafficking 504–5; Churches’ Commission for Migrants in Europe 463; evolution of demand in treaties 474–5; Hotline for Migrant Workers 148; illegal recruitment and migration 61; introduction to 473; sexual commerce 324–5; smuggling 21, 54–6; see also push-pull model of migration
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) 61
minimum maximum penalties 47
Ministry of Social Affairs and Employment 488
mobile network operator (MNO) 151
mobile virtual network operators (MVNOs) 151–2
mobility of labour exploitation 514–22, 515, 517
modern-day slavery 531
Modern Slavery Act (2015) 222
money laundering 214
Morozov 412
mother’s centrality in social life 275
Multi-Agency Safeguarding Hubs (MASH) model 309
multi-tasking criminals 542–3
Muscat Dhows case (1905) 4
mutatis mutandis requirement 24, 26–7
mutual legal assistance (MLA) 215
Napoleonic Wars 4
National Agency for the Prohibition of Trafficking in Persons in Nigeria (NAPTIP) 54
National Agency on Trafficking in Persons and Related Matters (NAPTIP) 60
National Plan of Action to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated Fishing (NPAO-IUU) 72
National Rapporteur Mechanism 408, 412
National Rapporteur on Trafficking in Human Beings 229, 233
national referral mechanism 229–30
National Referral Mechanism (NRM): challenges to further development 308–12; confirming trafficking status 218; in European law and policy 304–8; inter-agency co-operation 303–4, 334; international protection systems 309–11; introduction 303; protective environments for children 257; summary of 312; transnational referral mechanisms 311–12
Nena 489
neoliberalism and sexual commerce 319–22, 505, 531
Netherlands, trafficking in human beings 538, 541, 541–3
network of expertise 229
Neumayer, E. 389
New Port-In-Port-out (PIPO) Controlling Centers 72
New Zealand anti-trafficking legislation 81–2
Nigerian child slaves 512
noblesse oblige 5
non-criminal exploitation 114
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs): anti-trafficking measures 343, 426–8, 444; begging exploitation 164; criticism of 347–8; family reintegration 274; finding trafficked persons 334, 335; as inclusive service providers 426–7; knowledge production 397; non-punishment provision 177, 181; overview of 25, 28, 33, 34; Palermo Protocol and 328; service-providing NGOs 420; sexual commerce 326; support for victims 233, 243; victim blaming 241; victim protection 269; as watchdogs 428; as whistle-blowers 427; see also International Organisations
non-international armed conflicts (NIACs) 136, 139
non-payment of tax 115
non-punishment provision: application of standards 177–9; for children 176–7, 179; international standards 172–7; introduction to 171–2, 345; rationale behind 172; scope of 47, 175–6; summary of 181; victim protection 179–81
non-refoulement principle 29, 344
non-sex-sector trafficking 506
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) 444, 447
obligation to call witness, prosecutor 217
O’Connell Davidson, Julia 504
offender-related statistics 387–8, 387–9
Office for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights 303
Office of Internal Oversight Services (OIOS) 452
Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) 434, 437
One Stop Service Centres (OSSCs) 70
Open Democracy website 419
Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child (OPSC) 58, 176, 254
Organisation of American States (OAS) 444
organised trafficking rings 94, 110
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE): Action Plan to Combat Trafficking in Human Beings 304; funding from 434; High-level Alliance against Trafficking in Persons conference 425; ODIHR concept of a NRM 306–7
Organization of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) 52
Organized Crime Convention 22–4, 26, 32–3
organ trafficking see human trafficking for the purpose of organ removal
Orwell, George 328
Orwellian rights and UN Trafficking Protocol see Palermo Protocol
ostracism 202
Otto, Diane 329
outlaw motorcycle gangs (OMCGs) 542–3
overseas evidence 215–16
Pacific Immigration Directors’ Conference (PIDC) 80
Pacific Islands anti-trafficking legislation 82–3
Palermo Protocol: adoption of 14, 58–9, 81, 202, 303, 321; anti-trafficking framework of 419; child trafficking 253; demand issues with goods and services 474–5; drafting of 329, 330–1; exploitation concept 331–3, 332; finding trafficked persons 333–6, 383; forced labour, not defined 464; forms of exploitation 142, 161; fulfilling promises of 328; human trafficking, defined 8–9, 382, 505; information on trends 381; instrumental right 334; international co-operation emphasis 465; international legal frameworks 329–33, 332; introduction to 3, 4, 10, 328–9; migrant trafficking 56; non-punishment provision 172; right not to be found 334–6; right to be found vs. exploitation 336–7; role of consent 141; summary of 337
particular social group (PSG) 205
past persecution and fear of return 202–3
peacekeeping operations (PKOs): introduction to 443–4; obligations of 450–1; peacekeeper accountability 449–50; purpose of 444–7; responses to THB by 451–3; sexual exploitation and accountability 447–50; summary of 453–4
Penal Code 232
perpetrator defences 369–71
Perrotta, Domenico 519
Perry, I. 127
persecution fears 202–3
Peters, Alicia 336
phone tapping 231
physical health concerns 171
PICUM Checklist 306
Pijnenburg, Mandy 542
Piotrowicz, Ryszard 204, 206
Piscitelli 502
Platform for International Cooperation on Undocumented Migrants (PICUM) 305
police entrapment 231
police prosecution in civil law systems 227
pornography as trafficking 34
portable justice in victim reparation 268–70
post-trafficking social support 296
post-trafficking stressors 293–4
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) 292, 294, 296–8
post-traumatic stress syndrome (PTSS) 243
poverty: begging and 164–5; child trafficking and 252; cultural factors in 369, 370; direct poverty and labour exploitation 480–1; feminisation of 422; gender inequality 63; globalisation and 529; increases in 80, 523; neoliberalism and 531; ‘push’ factors of migration 499, 503; slave traffic and 10; traffickers and 16–17, 323–4, 512, 538; unemployment and 55–60, 527; victim health and 126; vulnerability and 186, 189, 207, 349
Povinelli, E.A. 530, 532
pre-charge stage 214–15
preliminary inquiry (inquisitio) 224
pre-trafficking abuse 295
pre-trafficking stressors 293
pre-trial investigation 224
Preventing and Combating Trafficking in Human Beings and Protecting its Victims 381
Prevention of Organized Crime Act (1998) 127
Privacy Impact Asses
sment (PIA) 413
private employment agencies (PEAs) 94, 101
private household exploitation 110
professional habitus of criminal investigator 401–3
professional network exploitation 110
PROMISE project 306
proportionality principle 344
pro-rights and brothel bans 489
prosecution in civil law systems: Belgian criminal procedure 224–6; Belgian Federal Prosecutor 227; by competent authorities 226–7; concurrent jurisdiction 226–7; efficient organizations of 228–9; elements of court procedure 233; guidelines 228–9; international jurisdiction 232; investigation and 226–9; national referral mechanism 229–30; network of expertise 229; by police 227; protection links and 230; social inspections 228; summary of 233; tool for on-call duty 229; tools for efficient inquiries 231–2; work of the prosecutor 229–30
prosecutor role in common law systems 213–14
prostitution: choice vs coercion debate 325; collateral damage 350–1; dysfunctional families and 16; human trafficking for 8, 53; regulation of 6–7; research interviews on 399; temporary marriages 94–5; use by United Nations personnel 445; victim identification 331; victim views on 240; see also brothel bans; sexual commerce
Protocols Additional to the Geneva Conventions 139
Protocol to the African Charter on the Rights of Women in Africa 58
Protocol to the 1930 Forced Labour Convention 269
psychological support for trafficking victims 247
public corruption 110
purchase of services obligation 115
push-pull model of migration: case studies 501–2; changing intimate economies 507–8; introduction 499–500; migration causes trafficking assumption 504–5; sex work migration 505–7; in trafficking 502–5
Qualification Directive 205
quantitative estimations 408
R. v. Dobie 369
R. v. Jumale and Zakaria 369, 372
R. v. Kovacs 368, 373
R. v. Osezua 368
R. v. Osolase 373
R. v. Urizar 369
ransom and trafficking see human trafficking for ransom
Rantsev v. Cyprus and Russia 263
Rantseva 263
rape crimes 17, 280–1
Routledge Handbook of Human Trafficking Page 109