Mao's Great Famine: The History of China's Most Devastating Catastrophe, 1958-1962

by Frank Dikotter

  17 Liu Shaoqi conversations on 25, 28 and 30 April 1961, Hunan, 141-1-1873, pp. 106–50; see also Huang, Wang Guangmei fangtan lu, pp. 238–40; Jin and Huang, Liu Shaoqi zhuan, pp. 865–6.

  18 Jin and Huang, Liu Shaoqi zhuan, p. 874.

  19 Letter by Liu Shaoqi, Gansu, April–May 1961, 91-4-889, pp. 2–4.

  20 Liu Shaoqi, 31 May 1961, Gansu, 91-6-81, pp. 69–73.

  21 Jin, Zhou Enlai zhuan, pp. 1441–2.

  22 Speech by Li Fuchun at the Ninth Plenum of the Eighth Central Committee, Hunan, 14 Jan. 1961, zhongfa (61) 52, 186-1-505, pp. 1–28.

  23 Speech by Li Fuchun, Hunan, 17 July 1961, 186-1-584, pp. 7 and 13.

  24 Documents from Beidaihe conference, Hunan, 11 Aug. 1961, 186-1-584, pp. 38–48, 125, 134 and 152.

  25 Li, Private Life of Chairman Mao, p. 380.

  Chapter 17: Agriculture

  1 Jean C. Oi, State and Peasant in Contemporary China: The Political Economy of Village Government, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989, pp. 48–9.

  2 Hebei, 11 April 1961, 878-1-14, pp. 56–8.

  3 Yunnan, 29 July 1958, 2-1-3102, pp. 16–22.

  4 Kenneth R. Walker, Food Grain Procurement and Consumption in China, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984.

  5 The plan for 1959–60 with the procurement figures broken down by province are in Gansu, 31 July 1959, zhongfa (59) 645, 91-18-117, p. 105.

  6 Zhejiang, 16 July 1961, J132-13-7, pp. 22–8, quoted in Yang Jisheng, Mubei: Zhongguo liushi niandai dajihuang jishi (Gravestone: A true history of the great famine in China in the 1960s), Hong Kong: Tiandi tushu youxian gongsi, 2008, p. 418; compare this with Yang’s statistics on p. 417.

  7 Guizhou, 1962, 90-1-2706, printed page 3; rough equivalents of these percentages are also found in more detailed estimates at the county level, for instance in the case of Zunyi county (26.5 per cent in 1957, 46.3 per cent in 1958, 47 per cent in 1959 and 54.7 per cent in 1960), Guizhou, 1962, 90-1-2708, printed page 7; the same file contains many other similar examples, some with procurement rates up to 80 per cent; for the Bureau of Grain, see Yang, Mubei, p. 540.

  8 Speech on 25 March 1959, Gansu, 19-18-494, pp. 44–6.

  9 Zhejiang, 16 July 1961, J132-13-7, pp. 22–8; compare with Yang, Mubei, p. 540.

  10 Report from the State Council, Gansu, 15 June 1960, zhongfa (60) 547, 91-18-160, pp. 208–12.

  11 Guangdong, 10 Aug. 1961, 219-2-318, pp. 9–16.

  12 Deng Xiaoping speech on 11 Dec. 1961, Hunan, 141-2-138, p. 43.

  13 Speech on 25 March 1959, Gansu, 19-18-494, p. 48.

  14 Shanghai, 4 April 1961, B6-2-392, pp. 20 ff.

  15 Shanghai, 8 July 1958, B29-2-97, p. 17.

  16 Oi, State and Peasant in Contemporary China, pp. 53–5.

  17 For the policy document and for an example from Hunan, see Hunan, 3 Nov. and 1 Dec. 1959, 146-1-483, pp. 9, 18–20 and 86.

  18 Zhejiang, Jan. 1961, J116-15-10, pp. 1–14.

  19 Guangdong, 7 Jan. 1961, 217-1-643, pp. 120–2.

  20 Guangdong, 2 Jan. 1961, 217-1-643, pp. 61–6.

  21 Speech on 30 Aug. 1958, Hunan, 141-1-1036, p. 38. A mu is equivalent to 0.0667 of a hectare.

  22 Hunan, 1964, 187-1-1355, p. 64.

  23 Zhejiang, 1961, J116-15-139, p. 1; 29 Jan. 1961, J116-15-115, p. 29.

  24 Hubei, 13 Jan. 1961, SZ18-2-200, p. 27.

  25 Gansu, 20 June 1959, 91-18-539, p. 35.

  26 Gansu, 12 Feb. 1961, 91-18-209, p. 246; Walker estimated the sown area for 1958 at 130 million hectares, Walker, Food Grain Procurement, p. 147.

  27 Walker, Food Grain Procurement, pp. 21–2.

  28 Guangdong, 1 March 1961, 235-1-259, pp. 23–5.

  29 Yunnan, 20 Sept. 1961, 120-1-193, pp. 85–92.

  30 Gansu, 20 Feb. 1961, zhongfa (61) 145, 91-18-211, p. 91.

  31 Guangdong, 1 March 1961, 235-1-259, pp. 23–5.

  32 Hunan, 15 Nov. 1960, 163-1-1082, p. 106.

  33 Yunnan, 6 Feb. 1961, 120-1-193, pp. 108–9.

  34 Beijing, 29 Nov. and 10 Dec. 1960, 2-12-262, pp. 21–3.

  35 Yunnan, 14 Dec. 1960 and 20 Sept. 1961, 120-1-193, pp. 85–92 and 112–15.

  36 Gansu, 20 Feb. 1961, zhongfa (61) 145, 91-18-211, p. 92.

  37 Yunnan, 14 Dec. 1960, 120-1-193, pp. 112–15.

  38 Hunan, 20 Aug. 1959, 141-1-1259, pp. 51–2.

  39 MfAA, Berlin, 1962, A6860, p. 100.

  40 Zhejiang, 29 Jan. 1961, J116-15-115, p. 12.

  41 Guangdong, 15 March 1961, 217-1-119, p. 78.

  42 MfAA, Berlin, 1962, A6792, p. 136.

  43 Hunan, 6 Nov. 1961, 141-1-1914, pp. 48–52.

  44 Yunnan, 1962, 81-7-86, p. 13.

  45 Hunan, 19 Feb. 1959, 163-1-1052, pp. 82–7.

  46 Report by Qian Zhiguang, minister for the textile industry, Hunan, 11 Aug. 1961, 186-1-584, p. 107.

  47 Guangzhou, 28 Feb. 1961, 6-1-103, pp. 3–4.

  48 Beijing, 8 Jan. 1962, 2-13-138, pp. 1–3.

  49 Report by Hu Yaobang on 1 Oct. 1961, Hunan, 141-2-138, p. 197.

  50 Hebei, 1962, 979-3-870, pp. 1–30.

  51 Hunan, 15 March 1959, 141-1-1158, p. 140.

  52 Guangdong, 3 July 1959, 217-1-69, pp. 74–5.

  53 Guangdong, 12 Oct. 1961, 235-1-259, p. 13.

  54 Zhejiang, 29 Jan. 1961, J116-15-115, pp. 16–21.

  55 Hunan, 15 Jan. 1961, 146-1-580, p. 13.

  56 Guangdong, 20 May 1961, 217-1-210, pp. 82–7.

  57 Zhejiang, 29 Jan. 1961, J116-15-115, pp. 16–21.

  58 Conversation between Li Jingquan and Zhou Enlai in the premier’s office on 1 April 1962, Sichuan, JC1-3198, p. 33.

  59 Shanghai, 1961, B181-1-510, pp. 17–20.

  60 Beijing, 31 July 1962, 1-9-439, pp. 1–4.

  61 Report from Moscow embassy, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Beijing, 18 Sept. 1958, 109-1213-14, p. 142.

  62 Zhejiang, 21 March 1960, J002-3-3, p. 34.

  63 Shanghai, 1961, B181-1-510, p. 7.

  64 Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Beijing, 10 April 1959, 109-1907-8, p. 100; also speech on 25 March 1959, Gansu, 19-18-494, p. 46.

  65 Shanghai, 1961, B29-2-980, p. 143.

  66 Guangdong, 16 Sept. 1961, 235-1-259, p. 71.

  67 Zhejiang, 29 Jan. 1961, J116-15-115, pp. 5 and 16.

  68 Xuancheng, 17 May 1961, 3-1-257, pp. 127–31.

  69 Shanghai, 1961, B181-1-511, p. 25.

  70 Hunan, 11 Aug. 1961, 186-1-584, p. 134.

  71 Hunan, 15 March 1959, 141-1-1158, p. 152.

  72 Guangdong, 25 Feb. 1961, 217-1-119, p. 57.

  73 Hebei, 1962, 979-3-870, pp. 1–30.

  74 Zhejiang, 29 Jan. 1961, J116-15-115, pp. 15 and 29.

  75 Ibid., p. 52.

  76 Guangdong, 25 Feb. 1961, 217-1-119, p. 58.

  Chapter 18: Industry

  1 Klochko, Soviet Scientist, pp. 85–6.

  2 Guangdong, 1961, 218-2-320, pp. 26–31.

  3 MfAA, Berlin, 7 June 1961, A6807, pp. 20–4.

  4 MfAA, Berlin, 14 Nov. 1962, A6860, pp. 142–5.

  5 Beijing, 31 July 1961, 1-5-371, pp. 5–10.

  6 Guangdong, 1961, 218-2-320, pp. 26–31.

  7 Klochko, Soviet Scientist, p. 91.

  8 Neibu cankao, 25 Nov. 1960, p. 7.

  9 Hunan, 21 Sept. 1961, 186-1-525, pp. 2–6.

  10 Ibid.

  11 Shanghai, 28 March 1959, B29-1-34, pp. 16–21.

  12 Hunan, 5 May 1961, 141-1-1939, pp. 33–4.

  13 Beijing, 26 June 1961, 2-13-89, pp. 14–15.

  14 Hunan, 26 Dec. 1959 and 16 Jan. 1960, 163-1-1087, pp. 70–2 and 91–5.

  15 Speech on 25 March 1959, Gansu, 19-18-494, p. 46.

  16 Reports by He Long and Nie Rongzhen, Gansu, 13 Sept. 1960, 91-6-26, pp. 69–75.

  17 Neibu cankao, 25 Nov. 1960, p. 9.

  18 Nanjing, 2 Sept. 1960, 6001-1-73, pp. 12–15.

  19 Guangzhou, 1960, 19-1-255, pp. 39–41; 11 Sept. 1961, 19-1-525, pp. 94–100.

  20 Guangdong, 7 Aug. 1961, 219-2-319, pp. 17–31.
/>
  21 Beijing, 17 Jan. and 31 March 1959, 101-1-132, pp. 14–18 and 26–40.

  22 Beijing, 29 March 1960, 101-1-138, p. 3.

  23 Beijing, 24 March 1961, 1-28-28, p. 6.

  24 Beijing, 28 Sept. 1961, 2-13-138, pp. 25–9.

  25 Nanjing, 13 July and 22 Nov. 1960, 5065-3-395, pp. 7–19 and 35–52.

  26 Nanjing, 13 July 1960, 5065-3-395, pp. 7–19.

  27 Nanjing, 1961, 5065-3-443, pp. 51, 60 and 66.

  28 Beijing, 31 July 1961, 1-5-371, pp. 5–10.

  29 Nanjing, 15 Sept. 1961, 6001-3-328, pp. 25–8.

  30 Nanjing, 1960, 4053-2-4, p. 98. These salaries were generally fixed; only in the winter of 1961–2 were fixed salaries replaced for a variety of compensation schemes, including pay by piece or a share of the profits; see Nanjing, 4 Dec. 1961, 4053-2-5, p. 1.

  31 Nanjing, 15 Sept. 1961, 6001-2-329, pp. 30–1.

  32 Beijing, 29 March 1960, 101-1-138, p. 4.

  33 Nanjing, 1960, 4053-2-4, p. 93.

  34 Hunan, 3 Sept. 1959, 141-1-1259, pp. 69–70.

  35 Beijing, 30 July 1961, 1-5-371, p. 8.

  36 Report from Ministry of Coal, Gansu, 91-18-193, 11 Sept. 1961, p. 71.

  37 These were Quren, Nanling, Luojiadu and Lianyang; Guangdong, June 1960, 253-1-99, pp. 17–20.

  38 Gansu, Feb. 1961, 91-18-200, p. 245.

  39 Shanghai, Jan. 1961, A36-1-246, pp. 2–3.

  40 Shanghai, Aug. 1961, B29-2-655, p. 92.

  41 Guangdong, Aug. 1961, 219-2-319, pp. 31–56.

  Chapter 19: Trade

  1 Hunan, 13 Sept. and 7 Nov. 1960, 163-1-1083, pp. 83–5 and 95–7.

  2 Shanghai, 11 Aug. 1960, B123-4-782, pp. 26–9.

  3 Yunnan, 23 Oct. 1958, zhongfa (58) 1060, 2-1-3276, pp. 131–5.

  4 Yunnan, 15 Oct. 1960, zhongfa (60) 841, 2-1-4246, pp. 103–8.

  5 Shanghai, Aug. 1961, B29-2-655, p. 160; 20 April 1961, B29-2-980, p. 248.

  6 Yunnan, 15 Oct. 1960, zhongfa (60) 841, 2-1-4246, pp. 103–8.

  7 Yunnan, 3 Dec. 1960, zhongfa (60) 1109, 2-1-4246, pp. 117–19.

  8 Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Beijing, 1 Jan. 1960, 118-1378-13, p. 82.

  9 Yunnan, 25 Oct. 1961, 2-1-4654, pp. 44–6.

  10 Yunnan, 22 Sept. 1960, 2-1-4269, pp. 36–9.

  11 Hunan, 3 Aug. 1959, 141-1-1259, p. 148.

  12 MfAA, Berlin, 11 Dec. 1961, A6807, pp. 347–51.

  13 Guangdong, Aug. 1961, 219-2-319, pp. 31–56.

  14 Shanghai, May 1961, B29-2-940, p. 161.

  15 On retailing and the material culture of pre-revolutionary China, see Frank Dikötter, Exotic Commodities: Modern Objects and Everyday Life in China, New York: Columbia University Press, 2006.

  16 Klochko, Soviet Scientist, p. 53.

  17 Nanjing, Nov. 1961, 5040-1-18, pp. 14–19 and 20–6.

  18 Nanjing, 12 Jan. and 26 April 1959, 4003-1-167, pp. 22–4 and 36–8.

  19 J. Dyer Ball, The Chinese at Home, London: Religious Tract Society, 1911, p. 240, quoted in Dikötter, Exotic Commodities, p. 63.

  20 Guangzhou, 22 Aug. 1959, 16-1-13, pp. 56–7; Guangzhou, 20 July 1961, 97-8-173, p. 18.

  21 Nanjing, 1 July 1959, 4003-1-167, pp. 39–46.

  22 Neibu cankao, 2 Dec. 1960, p. 11.

  23 Shanghai, 7 May 1961, A20-1-60, pp. 64–6.

  24 Nanjing, 4 June 1959, 5003-3-722, pp. 77–81.

  25 Neibu cankao, 23 Nov. 1960, pp. 15–16.

  26 Neibu cankao, 5 May 1961, pp. 14–16.

  27 Guangzhou, 27 March, 1 June and 6 July 1961, 97-8-173, pp. 45–6 and 52–3; 60-1-1, pp. 80 and 105–11.

  28 Wuhan, 29 July 1959, 76-1-1210, p. 68.

  29 Speech at Beidaihe, Gansu, 11 Aug. 1961, 91-18-561, p. 51.

  30 Beijing, 26 June 1961, 2-13-89, pp. 2–3.

  31 Beijing, 31 July 1961, 2-13-100, pp. 1–6.

  32 Nanjing, Nov. 1961, 5040-1-18, pp. 14–19 and 20–6.

  33 Neibu cankao, 10 Aug. 1960, pp. 13–15.

  34 Beijing, 28 March 1961, 1-28-28, pp. 9–11.

  35 Shanghai, 31 July 1961, A20-1-55, pp. 23–9.

  36 Interview with Lao Tian, born 1930s, Xushui, Hebei, Sept. 2006.

  Chapter 20: Housing

  1 Shen Bo, ‘Huiyi Peng Zhen tongzhi guanyu renmin dahuitang deng “shida jianzhu” de sheji de jiaodao’ (Remembering comrade Peng Zhen’s directions concerning the design of the Great Hall of the People and the ten great edifices), Chengjian dang’an, no. 4 (2005), pp. 10–11.

  2 Wu Hung, Remaking Beijing: Tiananmen Square and the Creation of a Political Space, London: Reaktion Books, 2005, p. 24.

  3 ‘Ten red years’, Time, 5 Oct. 1959.

  4 Xie Yinming and Qu Wanlin, ‘Shei baohule gugong’ (Who protected the Imperial Palace), Dang de wenxian, no. 5 (2006), pp. 70–5.

  5 PRO, London, 15 Nov. 1959, FO371-133462.

  6 PRO, London, 23 July 1959, FO371-141276.

  7 Beijing, 27 Dec. 1958 and 2 Feb. 1959, 2-11-128, pp. 1–3 and 8–14.

  8 Hunan, 21 Jan. 1959, 141-2-104.

  9 Gansu, 9 Jan. 1961, 91-18-200, pp. 18–19.

  10 Gansu, 22 Feb. 1961, 91-18-200, pp. 256–8.

  11 Hunan, 3 and 14 April 1961, 151-1-24, pp. 1–13 and 59–68.

  12 Guangdong, 20 Jan. 1961, 217-1-645, pp. 15–19.

  13 Report at the Lushan conference, Gansu, Sept. 1961, 91-18-193, p. 82.

  14 Gansu, 24 Oct. 1960, zhongfa (60) 865, 91-18-164, pp. 169–72.

  15 Speech by Li Fuchun, Hunan, 20 Dec. 1961, 141-1-1931, pp. 154–5.

  16 Shanghai, 28 July 1959, B258-1-431, pp. 4–5.

  17 Wuhan, 15 May and 23 June 1959, 13-1-765, pp. 44–5 and 56.

  18 Hunan, April 1960, 141-2-164, p. 82.

  19 Guangdong, 5 July 1961, 307-1-186, pp. 47–52.

  20 Sichuan, 22 and 24 March 1960, JC50-315.

  21 Sichuan, Dec. 1961, JC50-325.

  22 Beijing, 4 March and 7 Aug. 1959, 2-11-146, pp. 1–23.

  23 Nanjing, 16 April 1959, 4003-1-279, p. 153.

  24 Guangdong, 7 Jan. 1961, 217-1-643, pp. 110–15.

  25 Sichuan, Feb. 1961, JC1-2576, pp. 41–2.

  26 Guangdong, 10 Dec. 1960, 217-1-643, pp. 44–9.

  27 Guangdong, 12 Dec. 1960, 217-1-643, pp. 33–43.

  28 Hunan, 11 May 1961, 141-2-139, p. 61.

  29 Hunan, 17 May 1961, 146-1-584, p. 26.

  30 Sichuan, Aug. 1961, JC1-2584, p. 14.

  31 Sichuan, 1962, JC44-1440, pp. 127–8.

  32 Hubei, 18 Nov. 1960, SZ18-2-198, pp. 69–71.

  33 Hunan, 4 Aug. 1962, 207-1-744, p. 9.

  34 Li Heming, Paul Waley and Phil Rees, ‘Reservoir Resettlement in China: Past Experience and the Three Gorges Dam’, Geographical Journal, vol. 167, no. 3 (Sept. 2001), p. 197.

  35 Guangdong, Oct. 1961, 217-1-113, pp. 58–61.

  36 Hunan, 15 Dec. 1961 and 21 March 1962, 207-1-753, pp. 103–5 and 106–9.

  37 Beijing, 25 April 1961, 2-13-39, pp. 1–14.

  38 James L. Watson, ‘The Structure of Chinese Funerary Rites’, in James L. Watson and Evelyn S. Rawski (eds), Death Ritual in Late Imperial and Modern China, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988.

  39 Neibu cankao, 7 Dec. 1960, pp. 12–13.

  40 Hunan, 14 Feb. 1958, 141-1-969, p. 19.

  41 Interview with Wei Shu, born 1920s, Langzhong county, Sichuan, April 2006.

  42 Beijing, 18 April 1959, 2-11-36, pp. 7–8 and 17–18.

  43 Beijing, 14 Nov. 1958, 2-11-33, p. 3.

  44 The report was sent to the provincial party committee in Hunan; Hunan, March 1959, 141-1-1322, pp. 108–10.

  Chapter 21: Nature

  1 Ferdinand P. W. von Richthofen, Baron Richthofen’s Letters, 1870–1872, Shanghai: North-China Herald Office, 1903, p. 55, quoted in Dikötter, Exotic Commodities, p. 177.

  2 I. T. Headland, Home Life in China, London: Methuen, 1914, p. 232, quoted in Dikötter, Exotic Commodities, p. 177.

  3 Shapiro, Mao’s War against Nature, pp. 3–4.

  4 Mao’s spe
ech at Supreme State Conference on 28–30 Jan. 1958, Gansu, 91-18-495, p. 202.

  5 Hunan, 13 April 1962, 207-1-750, pp. 1–10.

  6 Hunan, 6 Oct. 1962, 207-1-750, pp. 44–9.

  7 RGAE, Moscow, 7 Aug. 1959, 9493-1-1098, p. 29.

  8 Hunan, 13 April 1962, 207-1-750, pp. 1–10.

  9 Gansu, 17 Aug. 1962, zhongfa (62) 430, 91-18-250, p. 66.

  10 Beijing, 3 March 1961, 2-13-51, pp. 7–8.

  11 Beijing, 26 May 1961, 92-1-143, pp. 11–14.

  12 Ibid.

  13 Beijing, 3 March 1961, 2-13-51, pp. 7–8.

  14 Hubei, SZ113-2-195, 12 Feb. and 1 Nov. 1961, pp. 8–10 and 28–31.

  15 Gansu, 23 Oct. 1962, 91-18-250, p. 72.

  16 Gansu, 31 Oct. 1962, 91-18-250, p. 83.

  17 Guangdong, 10 May 1961, 217-1-210, pp. 88–9.

  18 Nanjing, 25 Dec. 1958, 4003-1-150, p. 73.

  19 Beijing, 26 May 1961, 92-1-143, pp. 11–14.

  20 Gansu, 17 Aug. 1962, zhongfa (62) 430, 91-18-250, p. 69.

  21 Hubei, 10 March 1961, SZ113-2-195, pp. 2–3.

  22 Hunan, 28 Nov. 1961, 163-1-1109, pp. 138–47.

  23 Gansu, 31 Oct. 1962, 91-18-250, p. 83.

  24 Hunan, 18 Nov. 1961, 163-1-1109, p. 60.

  25 Gansu, 17 Aug. 1962, 91-18-250, p. 65.

  26 For estimates based on published sources, see Shapiro, Mao’s War against Nature, p. 82.

  27 Gansu, 17 Aug. 1962, 91-18-250, p. 68.

  28 Gansu, 31 Oct. 1962, 91-18-250, p. 82.

  29 Hunan, 6 Oct. 1962, 207-1-750, pp. 44–9.

  30 Guangdong report on forests, 21 Sept. 1962, Hunan, 141-2-163, p. 50.

  31 Yu Xiguang, Dayuejin ku rizi: Shangshuji (The Great Leap Forward and the years of bitterness: A collection of memorials), Hong Kong: Shidai chaoliu chubanshe, 2005, p. 8; to give a sense of proportion, by some estimates the forest cover stood at 83 million hectares in 1949; see Vaclav Smil, The Bad Earth: Environmental Degradation in China, Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1984, p. 23.

  32 Beijing, 15 Sept. 1959, 2-11-63, pp. 31–6 and 48–52.

  33 One of the earliest descriptions is by Tan Zhenlin in a telephone conference on the summer crop; see Gansu, 26 June 1959, 92-28-513, pp. 14–15.

  34 Y. Y. Kueh, Agricultural Instability in China, 1931–1991, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995, examined metereological data and concluded that bad weather did contribute to a reduction in crop production but that similar weather conditions in the past did not have the same effect.

  35 Beijing, 7 May 1960, 2-12-25, pp. 3–6.

  36 Beijing, 8 Sept. 1962, 96-2-22, pp. 15–18.

  37 Hebei, 15 Aug. 1961, 878-1-6, pp. 31–44.