36 Sydney Morning Herald, 9 May 1900, p. 7.
37 R. Kipling, Traffics and Discoveries, Macmillan, London, 1904, p. 87.
38 C.J. Dennis, The Moods of Ginger Mick, Sydney University Press, Sydney, 2009 (first published 1916); C.E.W. Bean, ‘The Australian’, Sydney Morning Herald, 22 June 1907, p. 6; and The Story of Anzac, Angus & Robertson, Sydney, 1941, vol. 1, pp. 46–47.
39 Christian Science Monitor, 18 February 1911, p. 30.
40 J. Barrett, Falling In, Hale & Iremonger, Sydney, 1979, chs 4-5.
41 Lt Gen. L.B. Concannon, ‘The psychology of a citizen company’, Commonwealth Military Journal, January 1913, p. 40.
42 Report by Gen. Sir Ian Hamilton on an inspection of military forces of the Commonwealth of Australia, Cwth Parliamentary Papers, 1914, 2(14), p. 45.
43 Sydney Morning Herald, 6 October 1913, p. 8.
44 Argus (Melbourne), 11 April 1896, p. 11.
45 Capt. J.H. Watson, ‘The Royal Navy’s contribution to Australian history’, Royal Australian Historical Society Journal and Proceedings, 3(7), 1916, pp. 326–51.
46 Old Chum ( J.M. Forde), ‘Old Sydney’, Truth (Sydney), Sunday editions, 21 February–7 November 1909.
47 ‘What is the story of Elands River?’, Life (Melbourne), September 1907, pp. 214–216, and October 1907, pp. 337–41.
48 Age, 25 May 1915, p. 9
49 Assuming an Aboriginal population of around 300 000, with 60 000 sometimes engaged in formal fighting.
50 There were 29 000 members of military forces in Australia (Meaney, Search for Security in the Pacific, p. 270–71), with some among the 12 000 serving with Australian contingents in South Africa (State Records of WA series 1496 item 1769/010); plus at least 26 000 rifle club members (Year-Book of Australia for 1901, pp. 601–609); and a possible 5000 Australians with non-Australian contingents in South Africa.
51 Based on 46 000 members of military forces, plus 48 000 rifle club members (Official Year Book of the Commonwealth of Australia 1901–1914, pp. 939, 943).
2 The ‘superior’, all-volunteer AIF
John Connor
1 J. Monash, The Australian Victories in France in 1918, Hutchinson & Co, London, 1920, pp. 2, 287, 291.
2 P. Adam-Smith, The Anzacs, Thomas Nelson, Melbourne, p. 298; K.S. Inglis, ‘Anzac and the Australian military tradition’, Current Affairs Bulletin, 64(11), April 1988, p. 6; J. King, The Western Front Diaries: The Anzac’s own Story, Battle by Battle, Simon & Schuster, Sydney, 2008, p. 367;
3 C.E.W. Bean, The Australian Imperial Force in France During the Allied Offensive 1918 , Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918, vol. 6, Angus & Robertson, Sydney, 1942, pp. 5, 485–86 & 402; J. Grey, A Military History of Australia, Cambridge University Press, Melbourne, 3rd edn, 2008, p. 111; and The Australian Army, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 2001, p. 41; P. Dennis et al., The Oxford Companion to Australian Military History, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 2nd edn, 2008, p. 156;
4 I.F.W. Beckett, Ypres: The First Battle 1914, Pearson Education, Harlow, 2004; and The First World War: The Essential Guide to Sources in the UK National Archives, Public Record Office, London, 2002, p. 121; M. Middlebrook, The First Day on the Somme, (orig. 1971) Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1984; R. Prior & T. Wilson, The Somme, Yale University Press, New Haven, 2005; W. Philpott, Bloody Victory: The Sacrifice on the Somme and the Making of the Twentieth Century, Little Brown, London, 2009.
5 Beckett, First World War, pp. 122–23.
6 For 1917 see R. Prior & T. Wilson, Passchendaele: The Unknown Story, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1996; March 1918, see M. Middlebrook, The Kaiser’s Battle, 21 March 1918: The First Day of the German Spring Offensive, (orig. 1978) Penguin, Harmondsworth, 1983; and for November 1918, see G. Sheffield, Forgotten Victory: The First World War ~ Myths and Realities, Headline, London, 2001; and P. Hart, 1918: A Very British Victory, Wiedenfeld & Nicolson, London, 2008.
7 For the introduction of conscription in New Zealand, Canada and Newfoundland, see P. Baker, King and Country Call: New Zealanders, Conscription and the Great War, Auckland University Press, Auckland, 1988; J.L. Granatstein & J.M. Hitsman. Broken Promises: A History of Conscription in Canada, Oxford University Press, Toronto, 1977; P.T. McGrath & C. Lucas, ‘Newfoundland’, in Lucas (ed.), The Empire at War, vol. 2, Oxford University Press, London, 1923, p. 307.
8 C. Puglsey, ‘At the Empire’s call: New Zealand Expeditionary Force planning 1901–1918’, in J.A. Moses & C. Pugsley (eds), The German Empire and Britain’s Pacific Dominions 1871–1919: Essays on the Role of Australia and New Zealand in World Politics in the Age of Imperialism, Regina Books, Claremont CA, 2000, pp. 221–38; J. Crawford, ‘“New Zealand is being bled to death”: The formation, operations and disbandment of the Fourth Brigade’, in J. Crawford & I. McGibbon (eds), New Zealand’s Great War: New Zealand, the Allies and the First World War, Exisle Publishing, Auckland, 2007, pp. 250–65; I. McGibbon (ed.), The Oxford Companion to New Zealand Military History, Oxford University Press, Auckland, p. 118.
9 J.L. Granatstein & D.F. Oliver (eds), The Oxford Companion to Canadian Military History, Oxford University Press, Toronto, 2011, pp. 85, 123 & 190; T. Cook, Shock Troops: Canadians Fighting the Great War 1917–1918, Viking Canada, Toronto, 2008, p. 504.
10 D. Fitzpatrick, ‘Militarism in Ireland 1900–1922’, in T. Bartlett & K. Jeffery (eds), A Military History of Ireland, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1996, p 388.
11 P. Orr, ‘200 000 volunteer soldiers’, in J. Horne (ed.), Our War: Ireland and the Great War, Royal Irish Academy, Dublin, 2008, pp. 63–77; T.P. Dooley, Irishmen or English Soldiers? The Times and World of a Southern Catholic Irish Man (1876–1916) Enlisting in the British Army during the First World War, Liverpool University Press, Liverpool, 1995.
12 For example, like Australia, Irish farmers enjoying a wartime boom would have opposed conscription as it would take away their agricultural labourers, and the Irish urban working class would have been ‘war weary’ due to price increases in food and other necessities: see D. Fitzpatrick, ‘Home front and everyday life’ and N. Puirseil, ‘War, work and labour’, both in Horne (ed.), Our War, pp. 131–42, 181–94; P. Travers, Conscription: War, Nationalism and Revolution in Ireland 1914–1918, Four Courts Press, Dublin, 2000.
13 For example, Bean included a table in his official history that compared enlistment of the Dominions according to ‘estimated total white male population’: Bean, Australian Imperial Force in France, p. 1098.
14 B. Nasson, Springboks on the Somme: South Africa in the Great War 1914–1918, Penguin, Johannesburg, 2007, pp. 65, 125, 161–62 & 158–59.
15 S.D. Pradhan, ‘Indian Army and the First World War’, in D.C. Ellinwood & S.D. Pradhan (eds), India and World War I, Manohar, New Delhi, 1978, pp. 51 & 55. For recent contributions on India in the war, see S. Das, ‘India and the First World War’, in M. Howard et al. (eds), A Part of History: Aspects of the British Experience of the First World War, Continuum, London, 2008, pp. 63–73; and ‘Indians at home, Mesopotamia and France 1914–1918: Towards an intimate history’, in S. Das (ed.), Race, Empire and First World War Writing, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 2011, pp. 70–89.
16 R. Smith, Jamaican Volunteers in the First World War: Race, Masculinity and the Development of National Consciousness, Manchester University Press, Manchester, 2004, pp. 80 & 90.
17 A. Osuntokun, Nigeria in the First World War, Longman, London, 1979, p. 269.
18 T.P. Parsons, The African Rank-and-File: Social Implications of Colonial Military Service in the King’s African Rifles 1902–1964, Heinemann, Portsmouth NH, 1999, pp. 2 & 18.
19 J.N.I Dawes & L.L. Robson, Citizen to Soldier: Australia before the Great War ~ Recollections of Members of the First AIF, Melbourne University Pr
ess, Melbourne, 1977, pp. 47 130.
20 Dawes & Robson, Citizen to Soldier, pp. 45–46 (apprentice); 49 (bank); & 119–20 (stockmen).
21 Dawes & Robson, Citizen to Soldier, p. 112; and A.W. Martin, Robert Menzies: A Life, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 1993, vol. 1, pp. 29–30.
22 E. Scott, Australia during the War, The Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918, vol. 11, Angus & Robertson, Sydney, 1936, pp. 310–312.
23 Dawes & Robson, Citizen to Soldier, pp. 13–14. It is interesting to note that escaping the control of farmer-fathers was a major motivation for young Irishmen joining the IRA during the Irish War of Independence (1919–1921): see P. Hart, The IRA and its Enemies: Violence and Community in Cork 1916–1923, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1998, chs 7 & 8.
24 J. McQuilton, Rural Australia and the Great War: From Tarrawingee to Tanganbalanga, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 2001, pp. 175–76.
25 See in general M. Crotty, Making the Australian Male: Middle-Class Masculinity 1870–1920, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 2001; the engine cleaner is quoted in Dawes & Robson, Citizen to Soldier, p. 117; and for feathers, M. McKernan, The Australian People and the Great War, Thomas Nelson, Melbourne, 1980, pp. 29 & 185–86.
26 West Australian, 19 April 1915, p. 6; and M. Haig-Muir, ‘The economy at war’, in J. Beaumont (ed.), Australia’s War 1914–18, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1995, pp. 97–98 & 109.
27 Dawes & Robson, Citizen to Soldier, pp. 155–58.
28 E. Greenhalgh, ‘Australians broke the Hindenburg Line’, in C. Stockings (ed.), Zombie Myths of Australian Military History, UNSW Press, 2010, pp. 70–71.
29 R. Stephenson, ‘The 1st Australian Division in 1917: A Snapshot’, in P. Dennis & J. Grey (eds), 1917: Tactics, Training and Technology, Proceedings of the 2007 Chief of Army Military History Conference, Australian Military History Publications, Sydney, 2007, p. 42.
30 G.D. Sheffield, ‘Military revisionism: The case of the British Army on the Western Front’, in M. Howard (ed.), Part of History, pp. 1–2.
31 J. Bailey, ‘British artillery in the Great War’, in P. Griffith (ed.), British Fighting Methods in the Great War, Frank Cass, London, 1996, pp. 23–49; P. Chasseaud, ‘Field survey in the Salient: Cartography and artillery survey in the Flanders operations in 1917’, in P.H. Liddle (ed.), Passchendaele in Perspective: The Third Battle of Ypres, Pen & Sword, Barnsley (Yorks), 1997, pp. 117–39; A.P. Palazzo, ‘The British Army’s Counter-Battery Staff Office and control of the enemy in World War I’, Journal of Military History, 63(1), January 1999, pp. 55–74.
32 J. Coates, An Atlas of Australia’s Wars, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, 2nd edn, 2006, pp. 78–79.
33 G.D. Sheffield, ‘The indispensible factor: The performance of British troops in 1918’, in P. Dennis & J. Grey (eds), 1918: Defining Victory, Proceedings of the Chief of Army’s History Conference held at the National Convention Centre, Canberra 28 September 1999, Army History Unit, Canberra, 1998, pp. 72–95.
34 Greenhalgh, ‘Australians broke the Hindenburg Line’, p. 86.
3 What about New Zealand? The problematic history of the Anzac connection
Chris Clark
1 C.E.W. Bean, The Australian Imperial Force in France 1917, The Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918, vol. 4, Angus & Robertson, Sydney, 1933, pp. 732–33; see also A.G. Butler, The Digger: A Study in Democracy, Angus & Robertson, Sydney, 1945, p. 18.
2 F. Glen, ‘ANZAC today: What does ANZAC mean to contemporary New Zealanders?’, Wartime, Official Magazine of the Australian War Memorial, 14, Winter 2001, p. 10.
3 F. Waite, The New Zealanders at Gallipoli, 2nd edn, Whitcombe and Tombs, Auckland, 1921, p. 300.
4 D.O.W. Hall, The New Zealanders in South Africa 1899–1902, Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington, 1949, pp. 9 & 88; see also J.L. Mordike, An Army for a Nation: A History of Australian Military Developments 1880–1914, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1992, p. 112.
5 Mordike, An Army for a Nation, pp. 111–113.
6 C. Coulthard-Clark, Duntroon: The Royal Military College of Australia 1911–1986, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1986, pp. 24 & 34.
7 C.E.W. Bean, The Story of Anzac: From the Outbreak of War to the End of the First Phase of the Gallipoli Campaign, May 4, 1915, The Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918, vol. 1, Angus & Robertson, Sydney, 1921, pp. 27–28; see also Mordike, An Army for a Nation, p. 244.
8 Bean, The Story of Anzac, pp. 28 & 30.
9 Bridges to Sir Ronald Munro-Ferguson (Governor-General of Australia), 31 October 1914, Novar Papers, National Library of Australia, Item MS 696/3557.
10 C. Pugsley, Gallipoli: The New Zealand Story, Hodder & Stoughton, Auckland, 1984, p. 69.
11 Pugsley, Gallipoli, p. 81.
12 Bean, The Story of Anzac, p. 129.
13 K. Fewster, Gallipoli Correspondent: The Frontline Diary of C.E.W. Bean, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1983, p. 39.
14 Fewster, Gallipoli Correspondent, pp. 47–48.
15 Pugsley, Gallipoli, p. 94.
16 P.A. Pedersen, Monash as Military Commander, Melbourne University Press, Melbourne, 1985, p. 50n.
17 Bean, The Story of Anzac, pp. 117–118.
18 A prime example of a New Zealander in the AIF was Captain Alfred Shout, who won the Victoria Cross serving with the 1st Battalion at Lone Pine. Another was Major W.L.H. Burgess, a permanent officer who happened to be on exchange in Australia when war began and found himself commanding the 9th (Tasmania) Battery at Gallipoli. Burgess stayed with the AIF and ended the war as brigadier-general commanding the artillery of the 4th Australian Division. After the war, as a Major General, Sir William Sinclair-Burgess was both General Officer Commanding and Chief of the General Staff, New Zealand Military Forces.
19 J. Jupp (ed.), The Australian People: An Encyclopedia of the Nation, its People and their Origins, Cambridge University Press, Melbourne, 2001, p. 603.
20 Bean, The Story of Anzac, p. 301.
21 Pugsley, Gallipoli, pp. 15, 109, 115 & 353.
22 Pugsley, Gallipoli, pp. 16, 153.
23 Bean, The Story of Anzac, p. 516.
24 Bean, The Story of Anzac, p. 516n.
25 J. Crawford (ed.), No Better Death: The Great War Diaries and Letters of William G. Malone, Reed Books, Auckland, 2005, p. 166.
26 Crawford, No Better Death, pp. 167 & 179–80.
27 Crawford, No Better Death, p. 283.
28 Birdwood, ‘Foreword’, in Waite, The New Zealanders at Gallipoli, p. xviii.
29 The Australian War Memorial in Canberra holds one of the six watercolours that Moore-Jones painted of ‘The Man with the Donkey’ (see AWM ART92147) along with several copies of the photo on which it was based, taken by Sergeant J.G. Jackson of the NZEF on 12 May 1915 (see AWM negatives A01011 and P03136.001).
30 H.S. Gullett, The Australian Imperial Force in Sinai and Palestine 1914–1918, The Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918, vol. 7, Angus & Robertson, Sydney, 1944, pp. 58–59.
31 Gullett, The Australian Imperial Force in Sinai and Palestine, pp. 210–11.
32 F.M. Cutlack, The Australian Flying Corps in the Western and Eastern Theatres of War, The Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918, vol. 8, Angus & Robertson, Sydney, 1923, pp. 3 & 10.
33 C.E.W. Bean, The Australian Imperial Force in France during the Main German Offensive, 1918, The Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918, vol. 5, Angus & Robertson, Sydney, 1937, p. 704.
34 D. Horner, Blamey: The Commander-in-Chief, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1998, pp. 192–93 & 208.
35 J. McLeod, Myth & Reality: The New Zealand Soldier in World War II, Heinmann Reed, Auckland, 1986, p. 32.
36 Horner, Blamey, p. 215; see also J. Hetherington, Blamey: Controversial Soldier, Australian War Memorial, Canberra, 1973, pp. 165–66.
37 G. Hermon Gill, Royal Australian Navy 1939–1942, Australian War Memorial, Canberra, 1957, pp. 519–21 & 646–47.
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38 Horner, Blamey, p. 437.
39 Hetherington, Blamey: Controversial Soldier, p. 319.
40 R. Jackson, The Berlin Airlift, Patrick Stephens, Wellingborough, 1988, p. 58.
41 Interview with Squadron Leader C.A. Greenwood, 1980, Imperial War Museum , Item 9961/3/3.
42 J. Cannon (ed.), Mediterranean Mission: A Pictorial Record of No 78 (F) Wing, RAAF, David Waddington, Malta, 1955.
43 R. O’Neill, Australia in the Korean War 1950–1953, vol. 1: Strategy and Diplomacy, Australian War Memorial, Canberra, 1981, pp. 80–81.
44 N. Bartlett (ed.), With the Australians in Korea, Australian War Memorial, Canberra, 1954, p. 68.
45 R. O’Neill, Australia in the Korean War 1950–1953, vol. 2: Combat Operations, Australian War Memorial, Canberra, 1985, pp. 144–45 & 151.
46 Bartlett, With the Australians in Korea, pp. 104–105.
47 O’Neill, Australia in the Korean War, vol. 2, p. 158.
48 P. Edwards, Crises and Commitments: The Politics and Diplomacy of Australia’s Involvement in Southeast Asian Conflicts 1948–1965, The Official History of Australia’s Involvement in Southeast Asian Conflicts 1948–1975, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1992, pp. 359–60.
49 Captain Morrie Stanley was later viewed as ‘the Kiwi hero of Long Tan’ and, for his part in that battle, was included in an Australian Unit Citation for Gallantry shortly before he died: Canberra Times, 18 September 2010.
50 L. McAulay, The Battle of Long Tan: The Legend of Anzac Upheld, Arrow Books, Sydney, 1987, pp. 24 & 40.
51 I. McNeill & A. Ekins, On the Offensive: The Australian Army in the Vietnam War 1967–1968, The Official History of Australia’s Involvement in Southeast Asian Conflicts 1948–1975, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 2003, pp.162, 164 & 536 n. 92.
52 McNeill and Ekins, On the Offensive, p. 162.
53 McNeill and Ekins, On the Offensive, pp. 163–64.
54 P. Londey, Other People’s Wars: A History of Australian Peacekeeping, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 2004, p. 114.
55 RAAF News, March 1986, p. 1; April 1986, p. 3.
56 D. Stevens (ed.), The Royal Australian Navy, The Australian Centenary History of Defence, vol. 3, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, p. 245.
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