by Frank Close
unified theories: attempts to unite the theories of the strong, electromagnetic, and weak forces, and ultimately gravity
up quark: quark with an electrical charge of +2/3; constituent of protons and neutrons
weak force: fundamental force, responsible for beta decay; transmitted by W or Z bosons
W boson: electrically charged massive particle, carrier of a form of the weak force; sibling of the Z boson
WIMP: acronym for ‘weakly interacting massive particle’
Z boson: electrically neutral massive particle, carrier of a form of the weak force; sibling of the W boson
Index
A
alpha particles 29–30, 32–3, 46, 48, 62, 63
angstroms 16
antimatter 18, 43–5, 102–5, 115
B factories 60, 61
CP symmetry and 126–8
solar fusion and 108
antineutrinos 99
antiparticles 20, 43–5, 46, 108
leptons 100
particle accelerators 46, 47, 54
particle colliders 58–60
particle factories 60–1
antiprotons 43, 46, 89
antiquarks 44–5, 45, 50, 57, 80, 85, 86, 89–91, 90, 96, 98, 127
astatine 1–2
ATLAS (A Toroidal LHC Apparatus) 76–7
atoms 1–2
electric charges within 85
energy levels of 34–6
fundamental forces and 81, 82–3
origin of 106
probing deep within 22, 26–33
size 13–16, 110–11
structure 2, 7, 14
temperature and 18–21
B
B-factories 60–1, 104
baryons 37, 44–5, 85–6, 90, 108
bottom quarks 98
charm 96
strangeness 92–4, 96
top quarks 99–100
beryllium 20, 52
beta decay/beta radioactivity 5, 47, 48, 106
antimatter 101, 103, 104–5, 127
electrons 75, 84, 110
neutrons 40–1, 84, 87, 110
particle accelerators 52
silicon microscopes 73
weak force 87–9
Big Bang 2, 6, 9–11, 16–17, 20, 82, 97, 111–12
black body radiation 114
exotic particles 47
mass and 125
matter and antimatter 102
neutrinos and 41
black body spectrum 114
black holes 116
boron 20
bosons 124
supersymmetry 118–19
W 87–9, 90, 110, 124
Z 87–9, 90, 101, 114, 124
bottom mesons 60, 61, 127–8
bottom particles 103–5, 128
bottom quarks 9, 10, 73, 98, 103–4
Brookhaven National Laboratory, New York 103
RHIC (Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider) 126
synchrotrons 52
bubble chambers 65–9, 71, 79
C
calorimeters 77
carbon 1, 2, 21, 31, 52
cathode rays 28
Cerenkov radiation 74, 77
CERN, Geneva 17, 27, 48, 52, 55, 58, 66, 68, 70, 128
LHC (Large Hadron Collider) 54, 59, 76, 80, 117, 125, 126, 128
long baseline experiments 123
Quark Gluon Plasma 126
W and Z discovery 89, 114
charm quarks 9, 10, 73, 95–8, 99
charmonium 96–7
cloud chambers 63–4, 65, 79
CMS (Compact Muon Solenoid) 76–7
Cockroft-Walton accelerator 31
colour charges 85–6, 87, 89–91
colours 23, 34
cosmic rays 46, 47, 64, 66, 92, 103
Cosmotron, at Brookhaven National Laboratory 53
CP symmetry 126–8
Cronin, J. W. and Fitch, V. L. 127
crystals 24–5
cyclotrons 49–52
D
DAFNE, Frascati 60
dark matter 114, 116–17, 121, 123
deuterium (heavy water) 74, 108, 114
deuterons 108, 112, 113
dimensions 5, 128–9
distance 72, 90–1, 110
down quarks 37, 38, 39, 40, 45, 93, 95, 96, 98, 99, 127
drift chambers 72
E
Earth 1, 13, 21, 42, 82
Einstein’s theory of relativity 17, 120
electric charge 48, 112
antiparticles 43–4
attraction of opposites 4, 81–5
charm quark 95
determining 67
electromagnetic radiation and 87
particle detectors 62, 72, 77, 79
quarks 35, 37, 40, 98, 99
strange quarks 93
through silicon 73
W bosons 87
electric conduction 73
electric fields 9, 29, 32
particle accelerators 17, 48–9
particle detectors 63, 69, 71, 72
electric force 3–4, 35, 81–3
electromagnetic force 6, 8, 14, 35, 81, 82, 83, 85–6
calorimeters 77
carriers 87, 88, 90, 124
dark matter 117, 121
transmission of 109–10
and weak force 88–9
electromagnetic radiation 10, 74, 77, 114, 116, 117
gamma rays 23, 26, 36, 76, 108
electron-neutrinos 73–4, 100, 122–3
electron positron creation 18
electrons 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 14, 27, 28, 40
antimatter version of 43
attraction of opposites 82–3
beams 28, 29, 32, 36, 47
beta decay 31, 75, 84, 99, 110
Big Bang 10–11, 111–12
discovered 29
energy 17, 36
heavier forms of 9, 10
high-energy 70
inside the Sun 107, 108
mass of 17, 18, 39
particle accelerators 27–33, 54, 56, 57
particle colliders 59, 80, 89
particle detectors 73–4, 76, 77, 80
particle factories 60
positrons and 96–7
size 14
spectral lines 34, 62
strong and weak forces 84, 88
supersymmetry 118, 119
electronvolts (eV) 17–19 see also GeV (gigaelectronvolts); MeV (megaelectronvolts); TeV (teraelectronvolts)
electrostatic force 40
electroweak force 88–9, 124
elements 1, 4, 5, 6, 9, 11, 20–1, 29, 41, 111, 126
emulsions 64
energy:
balance violation 87–8
charm property 96–7
colliding beam machine 126
decay 99
distance and 90
excess in gamma rays 76
kinetic 29, 107, 112
levels 34–6, 43
and mass 17, 39–40
matter and antimatter 102
particle accelerators 48–61
particle detectors 77
smashing beams 46
solar 84
of strange and charm particles 97
and temperature 17–19
units of see electronvolts and waves 22–33, 39 see also electromagnetic radiation
etas 95, 96
F
femtouniverse 39, 45
Fermilab, USA 52, 59, 73, 123
fermions 118, 119
forces of Nature see fundamental forces
francium 1–2
fundamental forces 6–8, 81–6, 128
carriers 87–91
dark matter 116
early universe 114
solar burning 109–10
Standard Model of 124
supersymmetry 117, 118 see also under individual forces
G
galaxies 13, 20, 102, 114, 116, 117, 121, 123
gamma rays 23, 26, 36, 76, 108
gases:
bubble chambers 65–9
drift chambers 72
expansion of 113
multiwire proportional chambers 72
particle detectors 62, 77
spark chambers 69–71
Geiger, Hans Wilhelm 29
Geiger counters 62, 63, 64
GeV (gigaelectronvolts) scale 65, 87, 119
bottom and top quarks 98–9
charm quark 96
down quark 39
electroweak theory 88
Higgs boson discovery 61
LEP 55, 57, 89
Main Injector Ring 52, 54
particle accelerators 32, 33, 48
Glashow, S. L., Salam, A. and Weinberg, S. 88
glass 77
glueballs 90
gluino 119, 121
gluons 37, 80, 87, 89–91, 125–6
gold atoms 30, 31, 98
gravitational force 6, 8, 11, 20, 81, 82, 84, 113, 114, 116, 121, 128
graviton/gravitino 119
H
hadrons 45, 77
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle 87
helium 2, 20, 21, 29, 84, 106, 107, 108, 111, 112, 113–14
HERA accelerator, Hamburg 36, 59–60
Higgs, Peter 110, 124, 125
Higgs boson 57, 61, 79–80, 124–5
Higgs field 124
high-energy particles 10, 64–5, 96
high-energy physics 10, 22, 26–7, 31, 47, 48–61, 121
hot dark matter 117
hydrogen 2, 4, 28, 43, 82, 83, 84
alpha particles 30
converted to helium 106–11
electrons 35
heavy water 74, 114
temperature and 18
I
infrared radiation 23, 26
interquark forces 38
inverse square law 90
ionization 11, 32, 36, 62–80, 107
iron 4, 5, 21, 77, 111
J
joules 17
K
K-Long 127
K-mesons 103
K-Short 127
kaons 46, 52, 60, 127
KEK laboratory, Japan 60, 123
Kelvins 18
kinetic energy 29, 107, 112
klystrons 56
L
laser beams 118
Lawrence, Ernest 49–51
lead glass 77
Lenard, Phillipp 28
LEP (Large Electron Positron) 54, 55, 57, 59, 78, 89, 125
leptons 40–1, 74, 84, 100, 118–19, 123, 124
LHC (Large Hadron Collider), CERN 54, 59, 76–7, 80, 117, 125, 126, 128
LHCb experiment 128
light 14, 22–4, 114
Cerenkov 74, 77
and neutrino detection 74
scintillation 62, 64, 67, 69, 71
spectral lines 35–6
speed of 9, 17, 50, 72, 74, 82, 117
waves 24
years 13 see also electromagnetic radiation
liquids, superheated 65, 69
M
MACHOs (massive compact halo objects) 116
macroscopic physics 17
magnetic fields 3, 48, 49, 50–4, 67, 68, 77
magnets 52, 55
Main Injector ring 52, 54
Marsden, Ernest 29
mass:
bottom and top quarks 98–9
carrier particles 87–8
charm quarks 95–6
critical for existence of life 110–11
energy 17, 39–40
fundamental particles 17, 18, 39–40
leptons 100
nature of 124–5
neutrinos 42, 43, 61, 101, 113, 121–4
neutrons 112
photons 110, 124
strange and charm particles 97
strange quarks 93–4
supersymmetry 119
matter 1–3, 6, 28
and antimatter 45, 102–5, 126–8
B factories 60, 61
dark 114, 116–17, 121, 123
origins of 125–6
strange 9–10, 47, 92–3
in temperature and time 17–21
Maxwell, James Clerk 88
mesons 45, 85, 86, 90
bottom 60, 61, 127–8
bottom quarks 98
spin 97
strangeness 93, 94–5, 96, 98
top quarks 99–100
MeV (megaelectronvolts) scale 17, 27, 31, 32, 39, 96
microscopes 9, 16, 73
microwave radiation 20, 23
Milky Way galaxy 13
molecules 3, 6, 24, 28, 82, 85
multiwire proportional chambers 71–2
muon chambers 77, 79
muon-neutrinos 100, 122
muons 9, 10, 46, 74, 100
N
nanoseconds 13
natural radioactivity 42, 46
Nature 27, 100–5 see also fundamental forces
neon 69
neutrino astronomy 42–3, 47
neutrino beams 52
neutrino factories 61
neutrinos 6, 10, 40–3, 46, 87, 88, 99, 111
antimatter version of 44
beta decay 110
Big Bang 113–14
and dark matter 117
detecting 73–4, 79
electron- 100–1
mass 42, 43, 61, 101, 113, 121–4
Sun 41, 42–3, 74, 76, 108, 111
neutrons 3, 4–5, 32, 35, 36
antimatter version of 44
beta decay 40–1, 84, 87, 110
Big Bang 11, 20, 111–12
mass 39–40
nucleus stability and 83–4
quarks and 37, 93–4
size 14, 106
solar fusion cycle 108
spin 38
strong and weak forces 84, 87
Newton, Isaac 82
North Pole 82
nuclear fusion 107–11
nuclear isotopes 31
nuclear power 3, 5
nucleus 2–3, 20, 27, 85
deuterium 74, 76
discovery of 62
heavy elements 29
isotopes 31
mesons and 45
stability of 82–4
strong force 6
structure 3–4, 7, 14
O
oxygen 1, 21
P
particle accelerators 9, 16, 17, 18, 22, 26, 27–33, 48–61, 96, 104
bubble chambers and 65, 67
evolution of 49–54
Higgs boson 124–5
linear 27, 32, 36, 48–9, 54–7, 61
particle colliders 58–61, 73, 88, 126
detectors at 76–80
particle detectors:
bubble chambers 65–9, 71, 79
cloud chambers 63–4, 65, 79
at colliders 76–80
drift chambers 72
emulsions 64
multiwire proportional chambers 71–2
neutrinos 73–6
silicon strip detectors 73
spark chambers 69–71
Pauli exclusion principle 38
Penzias, Arno and Wilson, Robert 114
PEP2 (B factory), Stanford 60
photino 119, 121
photography 64, 65, 67, 69
photons 35, 36, 42, 45, 77, 87, 88, 122
affinity 118
mass of 110, 124
motion 90
solar fusion cycle 108
transmission of electromagnetic force 109–10
phototubes 74, 77
pions 45, 46, 50, 52, 89, 96, 127
Planck’s constant 25, 37, 87, 118
plasma 11, 107, 108, 125–6
plutonium 4
poles 82
positrons 18, 43, 46, 57, 99
antineutrinos and 44
colliders 59, 60, 61, 80, 89
discovery of 64
electrons and 96–7
neutrino reaction to deuterium 76
particle detect
ors 77, 80
solar fusion cycle 108
potassium decay 42
protons 3–4, 14, 29, 82, 99
antiprotons 18, 43–4, 47
beta decay 40–1, 47, 110
Big Bang 11, 20, 111–13
energy levels 35, 36
fusion with neutrons 112
inside the Sun 106–7
mass 17, 39
nucleus stability 82–4, 106
particle accelerators 27–33, 50, 52–4, 57
particle colliders 58, 59, 61, 70, 89
quarks and 37, 52, 93–4
size 14
spin 38
strong and weak forces 84, 87–8
psi-K-short events 104
psi particles 96
Q
QGP (Quark Gluon Plasma) 125–6
quanta 25
quantum chromodynamics
(QCD) 37, 90 see also strong force quantum mechanics 34–5, 118, 122
quantum theory 25, 38, 47, 87, 120, 125
Quark Gluon Plasma see QGP quarks 5, 7, 14, 32, 33
baryons 37, 44–5
Big Bang 10–11, 20
energy levels 35, 36
flavours of 37–41, 73
Higgs field 124
kaons 127
leptons and 100–1
mass 123, 124
particle colliders 58–9, 80
probing deeper structure 27
protons 111–12
quantum chromodynamics 37, 90
size 14
spin 37–8, 95
strong force and 84–6, 87, 89–91
supersymmetry 118–19 see also antiquarks; bottom quarks; charm quarks; down quarks; strange quarks; top quarks; up quarks
R
radiation see electromagnetic radiation
radio waves 23
radioactivity 5, 6, 29, 42, 46, 63, 124 see also beta decay/beta radioactivity
radium 63
rainbows 23
relativity 17, 50, 61, 120
resonances 35–6, 38, 94
RHIC (Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider), Brookhaven National Laboratory 126
Rutherford, Ernest 29, 62–3
S
scintillation counters 62, 67, 69, 71
selectons 119
silicon strip detectors 73
silver atoms 124
SLAC (Stanford Linear Accelerator Centre), California 27, 32, 36, 48, 49, 54, 56
sleptons 119
SNO (Sudbury Neutrino Observatory), Ontario 74, 122–3
solar system 11, 12–13, 14 see also Earth; Sun
solidity 118
sound waves 23
spark chambers 69–71, 72
special relativity 17, 50, 61
spectra 34–5, 62
spectroscopy 96
spin 37–8, 96
baryons 93
leptons and quarks 101
mesons 95
supersymmetry 118–21
squarks 119
Standard Model 124, 125
stars 2, 12, 20, 41, 102, 106, 111, 116, 121