Gulag
Page 78
12. Kress, “Novyi pioner, ili, Kolymskaya selektsiya,” in Vilensky, Osventsim Gez Pechei, pp. 62–70.
13. Zorin, interview with the author.
14. Mindlin, pp. 52–57.
15. Sofsky, p. 168.
16. Pechora, interview with the author.
17. See, for example, photographs in the Memorial Archive.
18. Rossi, The Gulag Handbook, p. 255.
19. E. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, pp. 405 and 407.
20. Ulyanovskaya, pp. 356–65.
21. Petrov, pp. 208 and 178.
22. Zarod, p. 114.
23. Bardach, pp. 233–34.
24. Sulimov, p. 57.
25. Filshtinsky, p. 38.
26. Bystroletov, p. 162.
27. Bardach, pp. 232–33.
28. GARF, 9401/1a/141.
29. GARF, 8131/37/4547.
30. See, for example, Zhenov, p. 69.
31. Lipper, p. 135.
32. George Victor Zgornicki, from a tape sent to the author, April 1998.
33. Petrov, p. 178.
34. Filshtinsky, p. 39.
35. GARF, 9401/1/713.
36. Petrov, p. 208.
37. Zarod, p. 114.
38. Bardach, p. 233.
39. Olitskaya, pp. 234–44.
40. Weissberg, p. 63.
41. Ekart, p. 83.
42. Usakova, interview with the author.
43. Dolgun, p. 185.
44. GARF document in the author’s possession, no reference.
45. Razgon, p. 155. Examples of primitive saws are on display in the local history museum in Medvezhegorsk.
46. Hoover, Polish Ministry of Information Collection, Box 114, Folder 2.
47. Ibid.
48. Norlander, “Capital of the Gulag,” p. 170.
49. GARF, 9414/4/3.
50. Norlander, “Capital of the Gulag,” p. 182.
51. Dagor, p. 10.
52. Maksimovich, pp. 91–100.
53. A. Dobrovolsky; Okhotin and Roginsky, pp. 220–21 and 341–43.
54. GARF, 9414/6/23.
55. SLON, vol. I, 1924 (from GARF collection).
56. Chukhin, Kanaloarmeetsi, pp. 127–31.
57. Sgovio, p. 184.
58. GARF, 9401/1/567.
59. GARF, 9401/1a/68.
60. Feldgun, unpublished memoir.
61. GARF, 9401/1/567.
62. Herling, pp. 157–58.
63. Wigmans, p. 127; Korallov, interview with the author.
64. GARF, 9401/1/2443.
65. GARF, 9401/1/567.
66. GARF, 9414/1/1442.
67. Filshtinsky, pp. 163–69.
68. GARF, 9414/1/1441.
69. Ekart, p. 82.
70. GARF, 9414/1/1440.
71. GARF, 9414/4/145.
72. Kotkin, p. 232.
73. Andreeva, interview with the author.
74. Trus, interview with the author.
75. Ekart, p. 82.
76. Hoover, Polish Ministry of Information Collection, Box 114, Folder 2.
77. Herling, p. 155.
78. GARF, 9414/1/1460.
79. GARF, 9414/1/1461; Okhotin and Roginsky, p. 195.
80. GARF, 9414/1/1461.
81. Vladimir Bukovsky, conversation with the author, March 2002.
12: Punishment and Reward
1. Reprinted in Rossi, The Gulag Handbook, p. 460.
2. Kaufman, p. 249.
3. Herling, p. 199.
4. GARF, 9401/12/316.
5. Kuusinen, pp. 201–2.
6. Razgon, pp. 139–40.
7. GARF, 9401/1/713 and 9401/12/316.
8. Bardach, pp. 213–15.
9. Herling, pp. 199 and 200.
10. Ulyanovskaya, p. 358.
11. Herling, p. 200.
12. GARF, 9489/2/5.
13. Nordlander, “Capital of the Gulag,” pp. 230–31.
14. Adamova-Sliozberg, p. 66.
15. Svetlana Doinisena, director of the local history museum in Iskitim, conversation with the author, March 1, 1999.
16. I. Samakhova, “Lagernaya Pyl,” in Vozvrashchenie pamyati, vol. I, pp. 38–42.
17. GARF, 5446/1/54.
18. GARF, 9401/12/316.
19. Ibid.
20. GARF, 9401/1/3463.
21. See, for example, Chirkov, pp. 54–55; Maksimovich, pp. 82–90.
22. GARF, 8131/37/542.
23. GARF, 9489/2/20.
24. Bystroletov, pp. 377–78.
25. Rozina, p. 65.
26. Armonas, pp. 123–26.
27. Gorbatov, p. 121.
28. Bystroletov, pp. 385–86.
29. A. Morozov, pp. 101–3.
30. There is an example of this in the collection of documents from Kedrovyi Shor, in the author’s possession.
31. GARF, 9401/12/316.
32. A. Morozov, pp. 171–75.
33. Bystroletov, p. 169.
34. Ulyanovskaya, p. 403.
35. Zhenov, pp. 104–6.
36. GARF, 9489/2/5.
37. Herling, p. 93.
38. Golovanov, p. 128.
39. Koroleva, interview with the author.
40. Yasnyi, pp. 52–53.
41. Bystroletov, p. 391.
42. Herling, p. 92.
43. Gogua, unpublished memoir.
44. Herling, p. 95.
45. Solzhenitsyn, The First Circle, p. 221; Thomas, pp. 175–77.
46. Mazus, pp. 34–37.
47. Herling, p. 95.
13: The Guards
1. RGASPI, 119/7/96.
2. Viktor Shmirov, conversation with the author, March 31, 1998. Shmirov is the director of the Perm Gulag Museum.
3. See GARF, 9414/4/29 for a list of White Sea Canal administrators excluded from the Party for, among other things, having sex with prisoners.
4. NARK, 865/1/(10/52).
5. Kuperman, unpublished memoir.
6. Ivanova, Labor Camp Socialism, p. 154.
7. See, for example, GARF, 9414/4/10.
8. GARF, 9401/1a/61 and 9401/1/743.
9. Kuzmina, pp. 93–99.
10. GARF, 9401/2/319.
11. GARF, 9414/3/40.
12. Razgon, pp. 201–10.
13. Petrov, “Cekisti e il secondino.” (The author read the manuscript in Russian.)
14. Ibid. There were exceptions, of which the career of Viktor Abakumov is one. He started his career in the Gulag, yet worked his way up the ladder to become head of SMERSH (Soviet counter-intelligence). See Ivanova, Labor Camp Socialism, pp. 141–42.
15. Ivanova, ibid., p. 145.
16. I am grateful to Terry Martin for pointing this out.
17. Melgunov, p. 241. Also see Petrov, “Cekisti e il secondino.”
18. Ivanova, Labor Camp Socialism, p. 140.
19. Ibid., p. 150.
20. GARF, 9401/1/743.
21. Petrov, “Cekisti e il secondino.”
22. Smirnova, interview with the author.
23. Kokurin and Petrov, Gulag, pp. 798–857.
24. RGASPI, 119/3/1, 6, 12, and 206; 119/4/66.
25. Petrov, “Cekisti e il secondino.”
26. GARF, 9414/4/3.
27. GARF, 9401/1/4240.
28. Ivanova, Labor Camp Socialism, p. 163.
29. See, for example, GARF, 9414/3/40 and 9401/1/743.
30. Ivanova, Labor Camp Socialism, pp. 143 and 161.
31. GARF, 9489/2/16.
32. GARF, 9414/3/40.
33. GARF, 8131/37/357.
34. GARF, 8131/37/2063.
35. Vasileeva, interview with the author.
36. GARF, 9401/1a/1.
37. GARF, 9401/1a/10; 9489/2/5; and 9401/1a/5.
38. GARF, 9401/1a/6.
39. Nordlander, “Capital of the Gulag,” p. 183.
40. Pechora, interview with the author.
41. Roeder, pp. 128–30.
42. Kuchin, Polyanskii ITL, pp. 10–16.
43. Ivanova, Labor Camp Soc
ialism, p. 159–60.
44. Ibid., p. 160.
45. Stajner, pp. 241–42.
46. Ivanova, Labor Camp Socialism, p. 160.
47. MacQueen.
48. GARF, 8131/37/2063 and 9401/12/316.
49. Kuusinen, p. 173.
50. E. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, pp. 376–78.
51. Sgovio, pp. 247–48.
52. Nordlander, “Capital of the Gulag.”
53. Rotfort, pp. 78–80.
54. Razgon, p. 214.
55. Vogelfanger, pp. 147 and 178.
56. Kopelev, pp. 372–75.
57. Nordlander, “Capital of the Gulag,” p. 277.
58. Razgon, p. 228.
59. Starostin, pp. 83–88.
60. GARF document in the author’s possession, no reference.
61. Ibid.
62. This is the argument in Goldhagen.
63. Smirnova, interview with the author.
64. Andreevna, interview with the author.
65. Arginskaya, interview with the author.
66. GARF, 8131/37/100.
67. R. Medvedev, p. 282.
68. Razgon, p. 221.
69. Gorchakov, L–1–105, pp. 156–57.
70. Pryadilov, pp. 81–95.
71. GARF, 8131/37/1253.
72. Levinson, p. 40.
73. Zhigulin, p. 154; Sandratskaya, unpublished memoir, p. 51.
74. Gnedin, p. 117.
75. Berdinskikh, p. 22.
76. GARF, 9489/2/20 and 9401/1a/61.
77. Bulgakov, interview with the author.
78. GARF, 8131/37/809.
79. Zhigulin, p. 157.
80. Berdinskikh, p. 22.
81. Dyakov, p. 65.
82. Lipper, pp. 241–43.
83. Ivanova, Labor Camp Socialism, p. 149.
84. Ulyanovskaya, p. 316.
85. Kozlov, “Sevvostlag NKVD SSSR,” p. 89.
86. Weiner, “Nature, Nurture and Memory in a Socialist Utopia.”
87. Zhigulin, p. 157.
88. Stajner, p. 69.
89. Buber-Neumann, p. 125.
90. Shreider, p. 193.
91. MacQueen.
92. Anna Zakharova, “The Defense of a Prison Camp Official,” in Cohen, p. 143.
93. Anonymous interview with the author.
94. Hochschild, p. 65.
95. MacQueen.
96. Razgon, p. 214.
97. GARF, 8131/37/809.
98. Berdinskikh, p. 28.
99. Zarod, p. 94.
100. GARF, 8131/37.
14: The Prisoners
1. Dostoevsky, p. 29.
2. E. Ginzburg, Journey into the Whirlwind, pp. 353–54.
3. Gorbatov, p. 125.
4. Ekart, pp. 71–74.
5. Ioffe, pp. 8–9.
6. Razgon, p. 184.
7. Colonna-Czosnowski, p. 109.
8. Varese, pp. 162–64.
9. Abramkin and Chesnokova, pp. 7–22.
10. Ibid.
11. Dostoevsky, p. 35.
12. Abramkin and Chenokova, p. 10.
13. Razgon, p. 185.
14. Dolgun, pp. 139–60.
15. Korallov, interview with the author.
16. Abramkin and Chenokova, p. 9.
17. Korallov, interview with the author.
18. Varese, pp. 146–50.
19. N. Medvedev, pp. 14–16.
20. Ibid.
21. Shalamov, Kolyma Tales, p. 411.
22. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, vol. II, p. 445.
23. Zhigulin, p. 136.
24. Berdinskikh, pp. 291–315.
25. Hoover, Polish Ministry of Information Collection, Box 114, Folder 2.
26. A. Akarevich, “Blatnye slova,” Solovetskie Ostrova , February 1925, no. 2 (SKM).
27. Guberman, pp. 72–73.
28. GARF, 9489/2/15.
29. Shalamov, Kolyma Tales, p. 7.
30. Feldgun, unpublished memoir.
31. Berdinskikh, p. 132.
32. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, vol. II, p. 441.
33. Sgovio, pp. 165–69.
34. GARF, 8131/37/1261.
35. Likhachev, “Kartezhnye igri ugolovnikov,” Solovetskie Ostrova, 1930, no. 1., pp. 32–35 (SKM).
36. Finkelstein, interview with the author.
37. Herling, p. 18.
38. Hoover, Polish Ministry of Information Collection, Box 113, Folder 2.
39. Gorbatov, pp. 140–41.
40. Colonna-Czosnowski, pp. 126–31.
41. Antonov-Ovseenko, The Time of Stalin, p. 316.
42. Varese, p. 159.
43. Finkelstein, interview with the author.
44. Zemskov, “Zaklyuchennie v 1930-e gody,” p. 68.
45. Dugin “Gulag Glazomi Istovikei”; Zemskov, ibid., p. 65.
46. Adamova-Sliozberg, “My Journey,” in Vilensky, Till My Tale Is Told, p. 2.
47. Elletson, p. 2.
48. Kuchin, Polyansky ITL, pp. 37–38.
49. Ekart, p. 69.
50. E. Ginzburg, Within the Whirlwind, pp. 334–35; Razgon, p. 93.
51. Razgon, p. 93.
52. Shalamov, Kolyma Tales, pp. 258–59.
53. Warwick, unpublished memoir.
54. Frid, p. 235.
55. Federolf, p. 123.
56. Purizhinskaya, interview with the author.
57. Trus, interview with the author.
58. Gagen-Torn, p. 77.
59. Razgon, p. 138.
60. Ekart, p. 192.
61. Leipman, p. 69.
62. Ekart, pp. 67–68.
63. Noble, p. 121.
64. Leipman, p. 89.
65. Ekart, p. 191.
66. Dostoevsky, p. 51.
67. Chukhin, Kanaloarmeetsi, pp. 164–67.
68. GARF, 9489/2/5.
69. Herling-Grudziski, p. 25.
70. S. I. Kuznetsov.
71. Polonsky.
72. MacQueen.
73. Panin, p. 187.
74. Stajner, p. 203.
75. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, vol. III, p. 401.
76. Hoover, Adam Galinski Collection.
77. Wat, p. 147.
78. Khachatryan, interview with the author.
79. Buca, p. 122.
80. Negretov, interview with the author.
81. Korallov, interview with the author.
82. Sitko, interview with the author.
83. Purizhinskaya, interview with the author.
84. GARF, 9414/1/206 (nationality statistics for 1954).
85. Petrov, pp. 119–37.
86. Trus, interview with the author.
87. Federolf, p. 234.
88. Gagen-Torn, p. 205.
89. Andreeva, interview with the author.
90. Pechora, interview with the author.
91. Larina, p. 159.
92. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, vol. II, p. 330.
93. Dyakov, pp. 60–67.
94. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, vol. II, pp. 351–52.
95. Shentalinsky, pp. 163–65.
96. Andreeva, interview with the author.
97. Gagen-Torn, p. 208.
98. Kuusinen, p. 202.
99. Solzhenityn, The Gulag Archipelago, vol. II, pp. 65–66.
100. Ulyanovskaya, p. 300.
101. Arginskaya, interview with the author.
102. Gagen-Torn, p. 208.
15: Women and Children
1. Vilensky, Till My Tale Is Told, p. 53–54.
2. For example, Vilensky, interview with the author.
3. Buber-Neumann, p. 38.
4. Herling, p. 136.
5. Ibid., pp. 134–35.
6. Levinson, pp. 72–75.
7. GARF, 9401/1a/107.
8. See, for example, Alin, pp. 157–60 and Evstonichev, pp. 19–20.
9. Statistics compiled from various sources, GARF. I am grateful to Alexander Kokurin for them.
10. “Not Part of My Sentence
: Violations of the Human Rights of Women in Custody.”
11. Shalamov, Kolyma Tales, pp. 415–31.
12. Sgovio, pp. 173–74.
13. Abramkin and Chesnokova, p. 18; Marchenko, To Live Like Everyone , p. 16.
14. Yakir, pp. 46–47.
15. Ulyanovskaya, pp. 388–91, and Lvov, unpublished memoir.
16. Ulyanovskaya, ibid.
17. Hoover, Polish Ministry of Information Collection, Box 114, Folder 2.
18. Frid, pp. 186–87.
19. Lvov, unpublished memoir.
20. Hoover, Polish Ministry of Information Collection, Box 114, Folder 2.
21. Pechora, interview with the author.
22. Andreeva, interview with the author.
23. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, vol. II, p. 233.
24. Filshtinsky, interview with the author.
25. Hava Volovich, “My Past,” in Vilensky, Till My Tale Is Told, p. 260.
26. Lvov, unpublished memoir.
27. Buca, pp. 134–35.
28. Razgon, pp. 163–64.
29. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, vol. II, p. 233.
30. Herling, p. 135.
31. Frid, p. 187.
32. Ibid., pp. 187–88.
33. Zhigulin, pp. 128–33.
34. Vogelfanger.
35. Sitko and Pechora, interviews with the author.
36. Kaufman, p. 223.
37. Sitko, interview with the author.
38. Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, vol. II, pp. 248–49.
39. Ibid., p. 249.
40. NKVD operation order of August 15, 1937, reprinted in Sbornik , pp. 86–93.
41. GARF, 9401/1a/66.
42. Kaufman, pp. 188–89.
43. Natalya Zaporozhets, in Vilensky, Till My Tale Is Told, pp. 532–39.
44. Vilensky, Deti Gulaga, p. 428.
45. Ibid., pp. 41–42.
46. Hoover, Polish Ministry of Information Collection, Box 114, Folder 2.
47. Vilensky, Deti Gulaga, p. 117.
48. For example, the amnesty for women with children in 1945 specifically excluded political prisoners, as did a similar one in 1948. GARF 8131/37/4554; 9401/1a/191; and 9401/1/743.
49. Khachatryan, interview with the author.
50. Lahti, unpublished memoir. I am grateful to Reuben Rajala for this manuscript.
51. Joffe, p. 124.
52. Frid, p. 184; GARF, 9414/1/2741.
53. Andreevna, interview with the author.
54. Yakovenko, p. 196.
55. Hava Volovich, “My Past,” in Vilensky, Dodnes Tiagoteet, pp. 260–64.
56. GARF, 9414/6/44 and 45.
57. E. Ginzburg, Within the Whirlwind, p. 3.
58. GARF, 9401/2/234.
59. GARF, 8313/37/4554 and 1261.
60. Vilensky, Deti Gulaga, p. 150.
61. Joffe, pp. 127–35.
62. GARF, 8313/37/4554.
63. Anonymous, interview with the author.
64. GARF, 8313/37/4554.
65. E. Ginzburg, Within the Whirlwind, pp. 3–11.
66. Although the anonymous nursery administrator I spoke to denied that this happened, many, many memoirists speak of mothers being separated from their children. Susanna Pechora says that in the special camps, it was standard practice.