A. White, Democratisation in Russia under Gorbachev, 1985–1991: The Birth of a Voluntary Sector (London, 1999)
H. White, ‘The Provisional Government and the Problem of Power in the Provinces, March to October 1917’ (Oxford conference paper, January 1982)
H. White, ‘The Urban Middle Class’ in R. Service (ed.), Society and Politics in the Russian Revolution
S. White, After Gorbachev (Cambridge, 1993)
S. White, Britain and the Bolshevik Revolution, A Study in the Politics of Diplomacy, 1920–1924 (London, 1979)
S. White, Political Culture and Soviet Politics (London, 1979)
S. White, R. Rose and I. McAllister, How Russia Votes (London, 1997)
S. Whitefield, ‘Culture, Experience and State Identity: A Survey-Based Analysis of Russians, 1995–2003’ in S. Whitefield (ed.), Political Culture and Post-Communism
S. Whitefield, Industrial Power and the Soviet State (Oxford, 1993)
S. Whitefield, ‘Political Cleavages and Post-Communist Politics’, Annual Review of Political Science, no. 5 (2002)
S. Whitefield (ed.), Political Culture and Post-Communism (London, 2005)
S. Whitefield, ‘Social Responses to Reform in Russia’ in D. Lane (ed.), Russia in Transition (London, 1995)
A. Wilson, Virtual Politics: Faking Democracy in the Post-Soviet World (London, 2005)
R. Wortman, Scenarios of Power: Myth and Ceremony in Russian Monarchy, vol. 2, From Alexander II to the Abdication of Nicholas II (Princeton, NJ, 2000)
A. H. Wildman, The End of The Russian Imperial Army, vol. 1: The Old Army and the Soldiers’ Revolt, March–April 1917 (Princeton, NJ, 1980)
M. Wyman, Public Opinion in Post-Communist Russia (London, 1997)
V. E. Yesipov, ‘Povsednevnost’ ekonomiki i Rossii’ in B. A. Starkov (ed.), Rosssiiskaya povsednevnost’ 1921–1944 gg.: novye podkhody
E. Zaleski, Stalinist Planning for Economic Growth, 1933–1952 (London, 1980)
V. N. Zemskov, ‘Prinuditel’nye migratsii iz Pribaltiki v 1940–1950 gg’, Otechestvennye arkhivy, no. 1 (1993)
E. Yu. Zubkova, Obshchestvo i reformy, 1945–1964 (Moscow, 1993)
Index
Abakumov, V.S., 340
Abkhazia, 560
Abkhazians, 424, 481, 560
abortion, 143, 422
Abuladze, Tengiz, 415, 450
Achalov, Vladislav, 524
acquiescence, social, 146, 243–4, 250;
see also apathy
Adenauer, Konrad, 353
administrators: courted by Bolsheviks, 95; working-class, 96–7; and state centralism, 98, 111; recruits to, 145; material rewards and privileges, 193, 320–21, 371, 410, 550; under Stalin, 236–7, 240–43; indoctrination, 324; discontent, 329; obstructiveness under Khrushchëv, 360; and Khrushchëv’s reforms, 370–71; attitude to work, 417; complaints against, 424–5; and Yeltsin’s reforms, 514–15; under privatization, 538–9; see also managers
Adzharians, 424
Adzhubei, Aleksei, 347
Afanasev, Yuri, 460, 473, 475
Afghanistan: USSR invades (1979), 411; Soviet withdrawal from, 443, 465, 469, 480; costs, 469; American-led invasion (2002), 555
Africa, 389
Aganbegyan, Abel, 450, 492
Agitprop Department (of Party Central Committee), 132
Agrarian Party, 530
agriculture: pre-World War I development, 5, 7; World War I production, 79, 181; backwardness, 91; predominance, 147; improves under NEP, 155; diversification in, 163; prices, 164, 173, 263–4; low output, 181; mechanization, 181–2; under Five-Year Plans, 194–5; post-World War II disputes over, 302, 320; Khrushchëv’s reforms, 320, 347, 349–51, 401–2; Brezhnev’s policy on, 380, 400–403; increased production under Brezhnev, 385; 1980 output, 401; ‘links’ system, 401–2; Gorbachëv proposes reforms, 440, 470–71; inefficiency, 467; and imports, 470; stimulated 535, 542, 551, 558; see also collectivization; harvests
Aitmatov, Chingiz, 415
Akhmatova, Anna, 139, 248, 281, 319, 365, 573
Akvarium, 543
Albania: and end of World War II, 272; condemns Brezhnev Doctrine, 388; criticizes Soviet leadership, 409; survival of communism in, 484
Albert II of Monaco, Prince, 558
alcohol and alcoholism, 417, 439, 467–9, 518
Alekseev, General Mikhail, 102, 113
Aleksei, Tsarevich, 20, 33
Aleksi, Patriarch, 282, 369, 538, 547
Alexander II, Tsar, 6–7; assassinated, 18
Alexander III, Tsar, 71
Alexandra, Empress of Nicholas II, 20, 27
alienation, social, 397, 412–13
Aliev, Geidar, 424, 456
Alksnis, Colonel Viktor, 480
Allende, Salvador, 389, 399
Allies (1915–18): view of Lenin, 70; and conduct of war, 107
Allilueva, Nadezhda (Stalin’s wife), 195, 315
Allilueva, Svetlana (Stalin’s daughter), 317, 324
All-People’s Union of Struggle for Russia’s Regeneration, 200
All-Russia Congress of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies see Congress of Soviets of Workers’ and Soldiers’ Deputies
‘All-Russia’ (party), 547
All-Ukrainian National Congress (1917), 40
All-Union Congress of Soviets: First (1922), 133; Fifth (1929), 175.
Alma-Ata: protests in, 456
alphabet (Cyrillic), 206
Al-Qaida, 555
Andreev, Andrei, 170, 241, 302, 402
Andreeva, Nina, 458, 497
Andrei, Archbishop of Chernigov, 370
Andropov, Yuri: mission to Hungary, 343; made KGB chairman, 385; and reform, 410, 428–31, 433–4, 439, 469, 490; and succession to Brezhnev, 426; appointed General Secretary, 428; background and career, 428–9; character and beliefs, 429; employs Gorbachëv, 430–31, 433, 437; foreign policy, 431–2, 442; and tensions with USA, 432–3; health decline and death, 433
Anglo-Soviet agreement (1941), 268, 271
Anglo-Soviet Trade Treaty (1921), 126, 158
Angola, 399
Anpilov, Viktor, 524
Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (1972), 555
Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (1973), 399
Anti-Comintern Pact (1936), 230
Anti-Fascist Jewish Committee, 316
Anti-Party Group, 346–7, 360
anti-Semitism see Jews
Antonov-Ovseenko, V.A., 162
apartments see housing
apathy, social and political, 83, 243–4, 420, 566
Archangel, 102
Argentina, 401
Arguments and Facts (journal), 449, 479–80
aristocracy: calls for reforms, 17; see also gentry
armaments industry, 4, 28, 255, 266, 275–6, 304, 329, 535–6, 552
armed forces: pre-revolutionary discontent in, 37–8; support Right, 54; form revolutionary committee, 56; democratization after revolution, 67, 87; soldiers granted direct action, 69; demobilization, 86; mutinies, 119; conscription to, 120, 255, 285; Soviet expenditure on, 329; corrupt management 533; army incompetence 533; under Yeltsin 536; see also Soviet Army, Chechnya
Armenia: and Provisional Government collapse, 60; as independent state, 83; Mensheviks in, 83; conflict with Georgia and Azerbaijan, 113; Soviet republic formed, 114, 207; status, 129; and Nagorny Karabakh, 133, 457; repressed under Khrushchëv, 369; terrorist acts, 412; 1988 earthquake, 468–9; joins Commonwealth of Independent States, 506
artists see intelligentsia
Assembly of Plenipotentiaries (1918), 97
associations (factory), 407–8
Aswan Dam (Egypt), 352, 389
atheism, 136 , 203–4
Augustus, Roman emperor, 226
Aurora (battleship), 65
Austria: Hitler annexes, 231; East German refugees in, 483
Austria-Hungary: relations with Imperial Russia, 1, 3; Imperial Russian rivalry with, 24–5; and outbreak of World War I, 25–6; and October Revolution,
75; 1917/18 peace agreement with Russia, 77, 80; unrest in, 81
autonomous republics: introduced, 114
Azerbaijan: and Provisional Government collapse, 60; as independent state, 83; Mensheviks in, 83; conflict with Armenia, 113; Soviet republic formed, 114, 121, 207; status, 129; and Nagorny Karabakh, 133, 457, 482; religion in, 136, 370; joins Commonwealth of Independent States, 506
Azerbaijani Popular Front, 482
Babel, Isaak, 139, 248
Babi Yar (Ukraine), 286
Baghdad railway, 1
Bagration, Operation (1944), 267
Baibakov, Nikolai, 439
Baikal, Lake, 468
Bakatin, Vadim, 486, 493, 495, 512
Baker, James, 496
Bakh, Aleksei, 247
Baklanov, Oleg, 496, 498–9, 501–2
Baku: oilfields, 4, 121, 126; Bolshevik success in, 7; Russians in, 23; Muslim Azeris massacred in, 83; disorder over Nagorny Karabakh, 482
Balkans: French influence in, 24; wars in, 24–5
Balkars, 367
Baltic states: Russians in, 23; lost in 1918 peace settlement, 77–8; incorporated in USSR (1940), 258, 456; Germans occupy, 261, 283; post-World War II demands, 298; post-World War II deportations, 300; Russianization of, 366; human chain formed, 481; decline to join Commonwealth of Independent States, 507; see also Estonia; Latvia; Lithuania
banks and finance: credit squeeze in World War I, 28; nationalized (1917), 79; central, 452
Barbarossa, Operation (1941), 260, 263
Bashkir Republic, 114, 129
Bashkirs: and Russian rule, 84, 114, 424
Bashkortostan, 521
Basic Law (1905), 1, 15–16
Basmachi, 208
Bavarian Soviet Republic, 120
BBC Russian Service, 557
BBC World Service, 415
Bedny, Demyan, 205
begging, 517
Belarus (formerly Belorussia): agrees to join Commonwealth of Independent States, 506; see also Belorussia
Belgium: Germans occupy, 258
Belgrade: Gorbachëv visits, 463
Belorussia: lost in 1918 peace agreement, 77–8, 84; Soviet republic formed, 114; status, 129–30; Germans occupy, 261, 283; loyalties in World War II, 284; relations with Russians, 368; affected by Chernobyl disaster, 445; nationalist protests, 457; see also Belarus
Berdyaev, Nikolai, 137, 536
Berezovski, Boris, 532, 548–9, 550, 556–7, 561
Beria, Lavrenti: in Georgia, 201; interrogation methods, 229; promoted, 232, 242; at 18th Party Congress, 233; supports Stalin, 241, 252; on threat of World War II, 260; and conduct of World War II, 262; and murder of Polish officers, 268; and Stamenov, 268; and deportation of nationalities, 276; and nuclear weapons research, 301, 304, 318; post-World War II position, 303; Stalin turns against, 325; advocates easier treatment of non-Russians, 326, 343; and Stalin’s death, 327; position and reform policies after Stalin’s death, 331–3; arrested and shot, 333–4, 345, 357; in Great Terror, 340
Berlin: expected rising in, 101; 1923 insurrection, 159; Red Army occupies, 272; blockade and airlift (1948–9), 310; 1953 strike, 336; Wall, 373–4; see also Germany
Berlin, Sir Isaiah, 316
Beslan, siege at, 549
Bessarabia: annexed by USSR, 258
Big Three (USSR, USA, Britain), 294
Birobidzhan, 317
birth rate, 422
black market: in food, 109, 119; as common practice, 243–4
Blair, Tony, 556
Blok, Alexander, 95
Blokhin, Yuri, 497
Bloody Sunday (9 January 1905), 13
Blyumkin, Yakov, 103
Bogomolov, Oleg, 450
Bogrov, Dmitri, 17
Boldin, Valeri, 498–9
Bolshevik Party see Communist Party of the Soviet Union
Bonch-Bruevich, V.D., 93
Bondarëv, Yuri, 497
Bonner, Yelena (Sakharov’s widow), 521
Book of Delicious and Healthy Food, The, 320
Bosnia 24, 537
Boundary and Friendship Treaty (Germany–USSR, 1939), 257
bourgeoisie: class war against, 92; emigration by, 136; in administration, 145; and private trade, 145; eliminated, 239; see also middle class
Bovin, Alexander, 450
BP, 550
Brandt, Willy, 389
Brest-Litovsk, Treaty of (1918), 75–6, 78–80, 84–6, 93, 102–3, 107, 173, 268, 326
Brezhnev, Leonid: career, 236, 383, 568; Khrushchëv sends to Kazakhstan, 338; as Khrushchëv’s protégé, 373, 383; and ousting of Khrushchëv, 376–8; administration, 379–80, 391, 397, 399–400; displaces Shelepin, 379; agricultural policy, 380, 400–403; avoids excessive repression, 382; qualities and background, 382–4, 404; as General Secretary, 385; visits Prague, 386; and Czechoslvak Spring, 387; Doctrine, 387–8; visits abroad, 388, 399; and nationalist aspirations, 390; and Party discipline, 391–2, 399; death and funeral, 397, 426–7, 435; foreign policy, 399; memoirs, 403; political appointments and promotions, 403; health decline, 404, 425–6; personal cult, 404; at 24th Party Congress, 405–6; and static policy, 409; and dissenters, 413; and repression, 415; and material improvements, 417; and ideology, 419; liking for popular entertainment, 421, 425; allows Jewish emigration, 423; and legality, 425; succession to, 426; appoints Andropov to head KGB, 429; and Gorbachëv, 437, 451; Yakovlev criticizes, 459; Yeltsin visits, 504; his post-Soviet reputation, 529
Brezhneva, Galina (Leonid’s daughter), 383, 426
Brezhneva, Viktoria (Leonid’s wife), 382
Britain: empire, 3, 96; in Franco-Russian entente, 3; Imperial Russian disputes with, 24; and German naval rivalry, 25; in World War I, 25, 78; intervenes in civil war, 102; diplomatic relations with USSR, 229; and outbreak of World War II, 255–7; conduct of World War II, 259, 272, 277; post-war status, 294; state welfare system, 294; resists reparation demands on Germany, 308; in Suez war (1956), 343
British Council, 557
Brodski, Iosif, 412
Bronshtein, Lev Davydovich see Trotski, Lev
Brusilov, General Alexei A., 30, 120
Brutus, 93
Buddhists, 369
budget: deficits, 467–8; balancing under Yeltsin, 510, 532, 535
Bukharin, Nikolai Ivanovich: agrees to 1918 peace settlement, 77–8; in Central Committee, 85; revolutionary aims, 92; administrative agreement with colleagues, 110; encourages German communism, 126; encourages popular education, 142; and Lenin’s health decline, 151; Lenin criticizes, 152; disagreements with Lenin, 153; and succession to Lenin, 154–5; attacks Trotski, 156; supports NEP, 156, 158, 162, 172–4; and Western powers, 158; on world capitalism, 159; economic policy, 160, 186–7; reviles critics, 161; and agricultural prices, 164, 173; opposes Stalin’s economic policies, 172–4; qualities, 173–4; conflicts with Stalin, 174–6; forced to condemn rightist policies, 178; dismissed from Politburo, 179; opposes compulsory collectivization, 179, 195; edits Izvestiya, 194; criticized at 17th Party Congress, 213; accused of espionage, 221, 223; arrested and tried, 223, 228, 240; denounced, 238; Khrushchëv and, 341, 348; rehabilitation, 459; historical accounts of, 479; The ABC of Communism (with Preobrazhenski), 142; ‘Notes of an Economist’, 173
Bukovina: annexed by USSR, 258
Bukovski, Vladimir, 412
Bulgakov, Mikhail, 248
Bulganin, Nikolai, 241, 337, 347, 352
Bulgaria: in Second Balkan War, 25; in World War II, 258; Soviet post-War award, 271; and formation of Cominform, 308; Gorbachëv and, 463; communist collapse in, 483
Bulletin of the Opposition (Trotski), 188
Burbulis, Gennadi, 512
bureaucracy: personnel, 145, 320; venality in, 145–6; and record-keeping, 147–8; Gorbachëv on, 438; see also administrators
Buryatiya, 521
Bush, George W., 555, 556
Bykaw, Vasil, 415
capital: foreign investments in Russia, 4, 159, 163; industrial, 79; inter-war instabil
ity, 170; invested abroad, 519; after communism, 550, 562
capital goods: in post-World War II economy, 303–4, 329; under Khrushchëv, 352, 373
capitalism: Bolsheviks oppose, 62; and industrial syndicates, 95–6; state, 97; under NEP, 144; communist belief in collapse of, 178, 254; post-World War II, 294; Stalin’s views on global, 322–3; Khrushchëv criticizes, 356, 362; and Gorbachëv’s market economy, 385–6; adapts to welfare economics, 398; Gorbachëv recognizes success of, 437; under Yeltsin and subsequently, 469, 514, 533–6, 539–42, 550–1, 553–4, 558, 562–3, 573
Carter, Jimmy, 411
Caspian Sea: pollution, 468
Castro, Fidel, 352, 374
Caucasus: national aspirations, 40; kulaks deported, 195; see also Transcaucasus
Ceauşescu, Nicolae, 483–4
censorship, 94, 324, 366, 380–81; see also samizdat
Central Asia, 84, 86
Central Control Commission, 118, 148, 176
Central Intelligence Agency (United States), 341
Central State Bank, 452
centralization, political, 98, 110–11, 115–17, 129, 169, 452, 521
cereals see grain
Chagall, Marc, 94, 139
Chaikovski, Pëtr, 11, 249
Chaliapin, Feodor see Shalyapin, Fëdr
Chalidze, Valeri, 382
Change of Landmarks (group), 128
Chazov, Yevgeni, 404
Chebrikov, Viktor, 438
Chechens, 114, 276–7, 288, 367, 545, 573
Chechnya: declares independence (1991), 421; war in, 533, 538, 546; and Putin 546, 547, 555, 566
Cheka (Extraordinary Commission): formed, 69, 74, 92, 227; in civil war, 103; repression and terror by, 107–8, 110; appointments to, 148; see also OGPU
Chelyabinsk, 103, 364, 468, 518
Cherkessk (Stavropol region), 286, 296
Chernenko, Konstantin, 403–4, 426, 428, 433–5, 442
Chernobyl: nuclear power station accident, 445–6, 457, 469
Chernomyrdin, Viktor, 515–16, 522–3, 526, 529–31, 534, 537, 544
Chernov, Viktor, 19, 36–7, 51, 105
Chernyaev, Anatoli, 486
Chernyshevski, Nikolai, 17
Chiang Kai-shek, 162
Chicherin, Georgi, 158
Children of the Twentieth Congress, 356, 364, 450
Chile, 389, 399
China: Russian rail concession in, 3; 1924 treaty with USSR, 159; communists massacred, 162; acknowledges Soviet hegemony, 295; communist power in, 311; Treaty of Friendship with USSR, 311; resents Soviet friendship with USA, 354; Khrushchëv criticizes ‘dogmatism’ in, 362; border skirmishes with USSR, 388; rapprochement with USA (1970s), 399–400; Albania supports, 409; Gorbachëv’s overtures to, 465; Yeltsin’s relations with, 538
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