by Carl Hart
4. Quoted in Newsweek, June 16, 1986.
5. Associated Press, “Browns Safety Dies of Cardiac Arrest,” New York Times, June 28, 1986, http://www.nytimes.com/1986/06/28/sports/browns-safety-dies-of-cardiac-arrest.html.
6. Lynn Norment, “Charles Rangel: The Front-line General in the War on Drugs,” Ebony, March 1989.
7. African American Members of the United States Congress: 1870–2008, Congressional Record, HR 5484, http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d099:H.R.5484.
8. U.S. Sentencing Commission, Report to the Congress: Cocaine and Federal Sentencing Policy, May 2007, p. 16.
CHAPTER 10: THE MAZE
1. Roberta Spalter-Roth, Olga V. Mayorova, and Jean H. Shin, “The Impact of Cross-Race Mentoring for ‘Ideal’ and ‘Alternative’ PhD Careers in Sociology,” American Sociological Association, Department of Research and Development, August 2011.
CHAPTER 12: STILL JUST A NIGGA
1. E. H. Williams, “Negro Cocaine Fiends Are a New Southern Menace,” New York Times, February 8, 1914.
2. Ibid.
3. Ibid.
4. David Musto, The American Disease: Origins of Narcotic Control, expanded ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).
5. Ibid.
CHAPTER 13: THE BEHAVIOR OF HUMAN SUBJECTS
1. C. L. Hart et al., “Comparison of Intravenous Cocaethylene and Cocaine in Humans,” Psychopharmacology 149 (2000): 153–62.
2. M. A. Nader and W. L. Woolverton, “Effects of Increasing the Magnitude of an Alternative Reinforcer on Drug Choice in a Discrete-Trials Choice Procedure,” Psychopharmacology 105, no. 2 (1991): 169–74; M. A. Nader and W. L. Woolverton, “Effects of Increasing the Response Requirement on Choice Between Cocaine and Food in Rhesus Monkeys,” Psychopharmacology 108 (1992): 295–300.
3. C. L. Hart and C. Ksir, Drugs, Society, and Human Behavior, 15th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012).
4. L. R. Gerak, R. Galici, and C. P. France, “Self-Administration of Heroin and Cocaine in Morphine-Dependent and Morphine-Withdrawn Rhesus Monkeys,” Psychopharmacology 204 (2009): 403–11.
5. D. K. Hatsukami and M. W. Fischman, “Crack Cocaine and Cocaine Hydrochloride: Are the Differences Myth or Reality?” JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association 276 (19) (1996): 1580–88.
6. C. L. Hart et al., “Alternative Reinforcers Differentially Modify Cocaine Self-Administration by Humans,” Behavioural Pharmacology 11 (2000): 87–91.
7. Ibid.
8. S. T. Higgins et al., “Achieving Cocaine Abstinence with a Behavioral Approach,” American Journal of Psychiatry 150, no. 5 (May 1993): 763–69.
9. M. Stitzer and N. Petry, “Contingency Management for Treatment of Substance Abuse,” Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 2 (2006): 411–34.
10. K. Silverman et al., “A Reinforcement-Based Therapeutic Workplace for the Treatment of Drug Abuse: Six-Month Abstinence Outcomes,” Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology 9, no. 1 (February 2001): 14–23.
CHAPTER 14: HITTING HOME
1. Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor.
CHAPTER 15: THE NEW CRACK
1. C. L. Hart and C. Ksir, Drugs, Society, and Human Behavior, 15th ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 2012).
2. J. A. Caldwell and J. L. Caldwell, “Fatigue in Military Aviation: An Overview of U.S. Military-Approved Pharmacological Countermeasures,” Aviation, Space and Environmental Medicine 76, 7 (Suppl.) (2005): C39–51.
3. Remarks of Senator Barack Obama at Howard University Convocation, September 28, 2007.
4. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Results from the 2011 National Survey on Drug Use and Health: Summary of National Findings, NSDUH series H-44, HHS publication no. (SMA) 12-4713 (Rockville, MD: Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 2012).
5. Fox Butterfield, “Home Drug-Making Laboratories Expose Children to Toxic Fallout,” New York Times, February 23, 2004, http://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/23/us/home-drug-making-laboratories-expose-children-to-toxic-fallout.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm.
6. Kate Zernike, “A Drug Scourge Creates Its Own Form of Orphan,” New York Times, July 11, 2005, https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/11/national/11meth.html?pagewanted=2&sq=methamphetamine%20scourge&st=cse&scp=1.
7. S. L. Simon et al., “A Comparison of Patterns of Methamphetamine and Cocaine Use,” Journal of Addictive Diseases 21 (2002): 35–44.
8. C. L. Hart et al., “Is Cognitive Functioning Impaired in Methamphetamine Users? A Critical Review,” Neuropsychopharmacology 37 (2012): 586–608.
9. P. M. Thompson et al., “Structural Abnormalities in the Brains of Human Subjects Who Use Methamphetamine,” Journal of Neuroscience 24 (2004): 6028–36.
10. Hart et al., “Is Cognitive Functioning Impaired in Methamphetamine Users?”
11. C. L. Hart et al., “Acute Physiological and Behavioral Effects of Intranasal Methamphetamine in Humans,” Neuropsychopharmacology 33 (2008): 1847–55.
12. A. Perez et al., “Residual Effects of Intranasal Methamphetamine on Sleep, Mood, and Performance,” Drug and Alcohol Dependence 94 (2008): 258–62.
13. B. A. Johnson et al., “Effects of Isradipine on Methamphetamine-Induced Changes in Attentional and Perceptual-Motor Skills of Cognition,” Psychopharmacology 178 (2005): 296–302; B. A. Johnson et al., “Effects of Topiramate on Methamphetamine-Induced Changes in Attentional and Perceptual-Motor Skills of Cognition in Recently Abstinent Methamphetamine-Dependent Individuals,” Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry 3 (2007): 123–30; D. S. Harris et al., “The Bioavailability of Intranasal and Smoked Methamphetamine,” Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics 74 (2003): 475–86.
14. M. G. Kirkpatrick et al., “Comparison of Intranasal Methamphetamine and d-amphetamine Self-Administration by Humans,” Addiction 107 (2012): 783–91.
15. C. L. Hart et al., “Alternative Reinforcers Differentially Modify Cocaine Self-Administration by Humans,” Behavioural Pharmacology 11 (2000): 87–91.
16. Hart et al., “Is Cognitive Functioning Impaired in Methamphetamine Users?”
17. M. S. O’Brien and J. C. Anthony, “Extra-Medical Stimulant Dependence Among Recent Initiates,” Drug and Alcohol Dependence 104 (2009): 147–55.
18. Upton Sinclair, I, Candidate for Governor: And How I Got Licked (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1934), p. 109.
19. Hart et al., “Is Cognitive Functioning Impaired in Methamphetamine Users?”
20. G. Stix, “Meth Hype Could Undermine Good Medicine,” Scientific American, December 27, 2011.
CHAPTER 16: IN SEARCH OF SALVATION
1. James Baldwin, The Fire Next Time (New York: Dial Press, 1963).
CHAPTER 17: DRUG POLICY BASED ON FACT, NOT FICTION
1. http://www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s/2010/crime-in-the-u.s.–2010/persons-arrested.
2. C. E. Hughes and A. Stevens, “A Resounding Success or a Disastrous Failure: Re-Examining the Interpretation of Evidence on the Portuguese Decriminalisation of Illicit Drugs,” Drug and Alcohol Review 31 (2012): 101–113.
3. C. Hart, “Remove the Knife and Heal the Wound: No More Crack/Powder Disparities,” Huffington Post, July 26, 2012, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/carl-l-hart/crack-cocaine-sentencing_b_1707105.html.
About the Author
CARL HART is an associate professor in the departments of Psychology and Psychiatry at Columbia University. He is also a research scientist in the Division of Substance Abuse at the New York State Psychiatric Institute. Dr. Hart is a member of the National Advisory Council on Drug Abuse and on the board of directors of the College on Problems of Drug Dependence and the Drug Policy Alliance. A native of Miami, Florida, Dr. Hart received his BS in psychology at the University of Maryland and his MS and PhD in experimental psychology and neuroscience at the University of Wyoming. He lives in New York City.
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FIRST EDITION
ISBN 978-0-06-201588-4
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Footnote
* For simplicity’s sake, I use the terms reward, reinforcer, and reinforcement interchangeably throughout the book. To the purist, as a psychologist, I recognize the subtle different meanings of the terms but choose to use them interchangeably in an effort to enhance the readability of the text without misrepresenting the idea being expressed.